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UNIVERSITY OF 
ILLINOIS LIBRARY 
AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 
ARCHITECTURE 


Vault 


RICKER LIBRARY 
ARCHITECTURE 


GAYLORD F 


RICKER LIBRARY 
ARCHITECTURE 


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ARCHI@ECTURAL COMPOSITION 


GENERAL. PRINCIPLES 


By Professor H, Wagner 


‘ PROPORTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE 


By Professor A. Thiersch 


DESIGN OF THE BUILDING 


By Professor H. Wagner 


TREAMMENT OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE 


By Professor J Buhlmann 


ENTRANCES, STAIRS, COURTS, AND HALLS 


By Professor H. Wegner 
Second Edition 


Translated by WN. Clifford Ricker 
Dean of College of Engineering 


ARCHITECTURAL MIMBOGRAPH PRINT 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
URBANA, IDL. 


1990 


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-. ARCHITECTURAL CCKPOSITICN. 
; Table OF CONTENTS. ; Lee 
Problem anc dim of architectural Creation ----------- * 
1.: Frimary Ideas - ------=- mee ee eee eK KH HK if 
€:.- Nature of architectural Creation. - - - ----- - --- 11 
2. Two-Fold Problem of architect ------------- 2 
4, Protlem of Builder - ------+----+-+--------- 12 
5, bivision of architectural Lator - ----------- 12 
&.° pvesigning --------+----+---+-+------- - 14 
7, Beience of Building - ----+----+-=-+-+--+--+------ 1A 
DIVISION 1.: GENERAL PRINCIPLES - ------------------ 12 
| & General - -------------------+---- 1é 
Chan. 1. Suitability and Durability - -------------- 12 
@ suitatility -------+-+---+-------------- 17 
8. Fulfilment of kequirements for Space - - - - ----- - 17 
10. Building Site, Soil and Surroundings - - - - - - - - - - 1€ 
11.. Sanitary Requirements - -------+-------+-- Sw 
12, Requirement of Comfort - -------+--------+--- 1¢ 
b. Durability - ----+---+------+-+--+--.----- ‘HD 
“13.- Duration of Building ---------- -- +--+ +--+ 
14,: Building Materials and Construction - - - ------- 0) 
1B, Magnitude - - - «<8 = = eo we oe eee eee Ke xD 
1é,. Dimensions of Rooms - ----------+----+---- co 
Chap. 2. Truth and Order ------+---+------+-----+---- 24 
a Truth-----+-----+--+--+-+-+--+---+-++------- 2 
17,° Sincerity in Fulfilment of Furpose - - - - ------- 24, 
48. Teuth in Construction < ~ 6-2 ea ete ee oe 
i@.° Trath in Materials = - - -.. = ~Sm « Hwee ee ere ee £2 
&. Degeneration ---------+-------+--+-—--+---- 2a 
BeOrder mm ne ae ym geen me ew eg ee 28 
el. oyunetry and balance —- - == = 2 = w)ogm0e = oie a 
.g&.. architectural Crders ---------+-----+------ EE 
Char. 2, beauty and.Ornenent =~ ie = 2 oe ee ee eo 
p.beauty -------- ee - eee ee ee eee £9 
BO. UME GY me men ei ne te dene as ee 29 
£4.  Coneeption of beauty ='- = 2 oie 6 A a 29 
Ro, erchitectural Style: sie S (me es oe ee eh ce 25 
mo, Building khatlerial =. 6 aie mie ell ee eee i ae 
27, Form ------- sa ph th en le Sel ot hac GS © ime ip i bw he iy a 2p 
eo, Karsony and Rhythw <2 "Oe i ole Be tee et me oc 
eo, Sutdivision -~-------------.- teint, atliin oe eee oe 


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DO tha ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee om Ot TR. 
| (Sb = doetwidt « toesetord yd <.2aUTORTIMOHA HI CMOITAOIORY .1T MOLSIVEG 


whe eee SS ew Re istona0 at 


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i enoitrojord qeHt0 SA 
TG a es + wwtoetidon midges? Af enolfroocs 22 ~ 
ae a a owios? idots oiool ai aasizic.e74 “S.qeh 
08 =~ ~~ ~~ ~ waists ni Belge? oinol ba 


t ae -o« ~ oun mwe ne = soa hi ‘pied ak ‘eelgque? ‘pinol 38: 

a eee le ae wa >. “ms egelb tive +e igosd ne fooi ba 
ied a ere - ae ee de ee ee aenenkt aw “6Lisk am es ; 
ee aha ttle etwdostidowm sea0H ei ‘anol f1o4974 ~.% qed 
| le i eee + asladeT aetis3I «8% ~ | 


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a ARCHITSCTURAL COMPOSITION. 
@0.. Mouldings and Profiles - --------------- 
81. Seale --------- - ee ee ee ee er er eee ee 
22, Proportions ----------s-- +s -- ee ee 
b.-“Ornament in Form and Color ----=------------ 
23.: Origin of Becoration in Kelief and Coler - ----- - 
24." “OPMBMEN E PT ee ee a -------- 
36, Color ----- mee ee ee ee wee ee ee eee 
2¢.. Polyshromy - ------+--+----- -“- ee He ee 
ov. Painting and Sculpture - - - -- - - -“----- = & 
Final Considerations ------+-+--------------- 
28, application of Preceding Laws - - ---------- _ 
2$,- Recent Period - ------+-- meee eee Kee eK 
40, The Present - - -- - - ne a a i ae ae ae 
41. The Future ------+--- W~- ee ee ee ee eee 
DIVISION II.. PROPORTIONS IN AKCHITECTURE.. by Professor 4.Thiersch - 
42.. General --------------------- eer! 
43,° Similarity of Figures ----------------- 
Chao.1. Proportions in Doric architecture - - --------- 
44,- The Doric Temple - ----------+--------- 
46,° Numerical Ratios - ------+---+-------+--- 
48, The Ground Plan - - - - -- - a a ee ee 
_ 4%, Facades of Cell and of Temple - - ----------- 
48, Bntablatures ------------++--+--+----- 
49. Elevations of Entablatures - --------+------ 
BO.: The Parthenon - -----+-+--+---+--+--+-+-+-+-+- a 
BSL: Leter Buildings - -------+---+-+--------- 
Be. Other Prorortions - ----------------+-- 
£3,° Proportions in Egyetian architecture - - - ----- = 
Chap.2.: Proportions in Ionic architecture - ------+--+--- 
F4,- Ionic Temples in Attica - ------+--+---- at ae 
56. Ionic Temples in 4sia Minor - - - - - - gD pets 8 
£8.° Grecian Secular auildings - - - - - - as Pai Biel pa a ae 7% 
B7.° Ratio of Masses - - - - - - 6 Yas tah” Sey Salt tas Se es ee 
Chap.2.- Proportions in Romen srchitecture - - - -------- 
£6, Italian Temoles - ------+--+----+-+---+---+--- 
6G,° Triumphel arches ~+-=---+-----+---+- Pie Seis Sar) 
€0.- Pooportions of ‘flevaticn “~-te 20. oi a ee ee 
ei, Suldivision of ‘Entablature ‘= —(— = 6 wie ee 
é2.:~Btatenents of Vitruvits +=" S 2's Ci ae 
Chap.4, Prorortions in marly Christian and itediaev. arch. - - - 


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ARCHITECTURAL CCHEOSITION. 


4.° 
é2,. Barly Christian Easilicas -----+--+-+.-------- 
é4,: Barly Christian Centralized Buildines - - - - - - to 
86, Romanesque Churches - ---------+-----+--+---- 
6€,. Gothic Churches - --------- - ~-------- 
Chap.5, Proportions in Renaissance and Modern Architecture- - - 
87, Churches in Italian Renaissance - - -----+------ 
é@,: Private buildings of Italian Renaissance- - - - - - ~ - 
@9,° subdivision of Facade - - - - - - - - ~----- --- 
70, architraves of Doors and windows- -------+----- 
71, wall Openings and surfaces - -------+------- 
72,° arrangement of Pilasters and Columns- -; - - - - - - = 
?a@, Division of %all surfaces - -------+-+--+-+---+- — 
74. arrangement in Detail ------------ -——- == 
75.: Profiles and Decorations- - --------+--+------ 
7é, German Renaissance - ------------+------ 
77, Statenents of altert? - - =«=- + =~ =—--+-- = oo ee 
78.: architecture of modern Period - - ----------- 
Chap.6.° Influence of Perssective upon FProrertions - - - - - - - 
79,° Perspective ---------+-----+------+--- 
EC. Theory of Similarity --------- a nk ee: cd 
Final Considerations —--— - = —-— = re wh Prcireos ian jai Oe Sa eee a 
81.° Proportions in Crganic Nature - ------------ 
€c.. Rarmony - ----------------------- 
DIVISION ITI.. DRSIGN OF THR BUILDING. By Professor H. ‘Wagner - - - - 
€2.°. General 92 a) ce me at ee ee eee ak oh 
Chap.1.. Lata for besign — << = 2:6 = owe) S 6) 20 eee 
84. Programme - ~ - - - Se 
Ef. Space Requiremente- ~)— — = Ski a a ee 
Gé, site for Building, — — «6 — = = =: ere i ee 
7. Logael. Inf] wemcseys : scien: sk sai et ed ee tit ha: ald es deg, Pagecteh ee 
S8.° Place and aspect of building -------+---+---~- 
SO, értzetic Trest nent, ss: make ee ee ee we ke in ok Bae ie Soa 
0. Fixing Cost of building - -------- site eae acre iene 
9h... Caleulatios of Comt, <ee ai vedere eae ws: <6 tos ges ips de ee 
Char, 2.- Treatrent of Rooke:.- 2 + ao oi kee oe a ee 
9%@ General - ---+--+--+---- ee te ee eee ee 
M, The ROOM. se. ametuer ae es aa ae an oe ra ke 
Ge. Its Gomeral Sora: x -e . ke ae be me ee oe donate 
%4.- The Elepentary Pome « = «6 =~ + « ako os See 
SE, ae weg eter | ee ae 


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98.: Depth: Bosition of Loors. - = =4« “2 fe © 
99,° keight: arrangement of windews - - - = - 
10¢.: Proportions ------*+-*----+-+-- 
Fable of buildings ---+-+*+2¢-+-+-+ +e 
b.: Lighting of Kooms --*+---+------ MS 
101, Natural Lighting --+----+----- 
102. Glass area ---+-2++--+-+-++-+--- 
108° Direct and Indirect Lighting - - - + - - 
104.: high Side Light and Ceiling Light - - - - - 
105. artificial Lighting - ----------- 


ARCHLTECTURAL COMPCSITICN.. 


G. arrangement of Chimneys and Heating apraratus 


10¢.: Chimney, Fiaes ej ata > om on ie 
107. Heating apparatus - - ----------- 
Chap.2.: Forms of Buildings..- - -----<--<---- 
108.: General - ---- - Bd bie thd bee Son! Sa hee cay bok te 
109.° Buildings without Internal Rooms - - - - - 
110.° buildings Containing a Single Room - - - - 
111.: Tower-Like Structures - ---------- 
t.buildings of Compound Form - -------->- 
112,- Principal Points - ------------ 
1. Form of Plan ----+-----+----+=- 
112. arrangement of Rooms Beside pach Cther - - 
114. Roows for Facilitating access - - - - - - - 
116.- Depth of Parts of Evuilding -------- 
1i@.: Extent in Length and height - - ----- - 
117.° Ground Forr - --------- ----- 
2. Treatment of koof - --------- ok: ai ou 
116, Ceiling - -------------+-+--- 
119.: Forms of kocf ---------+--+--+ 
120. vevelogment of Roofs - =-+-+------+- 
Chap.4. Designing ------------+--+-- 
121. General -- -—- = ee we eee eww wee 
122,. Design -~---- --- e+e ee ee - - 
ize. Plan of Site -~-------+--+--- 
124,° area of Ground Covered ---------- 
125.: General arrangement - +------+-+- 
12é.: Ground Plan - - ------+-+---+-- ss 


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ig ~~~ anoitjos? bas eaottevela ye 


aebi2 Ils no bodon.2sb issues ~ 


owe n+ = boQuoiD yleeyl 
oo ie si = + 0 no wo BORON ni ne isb10se ¢igasd 
ean ee ee  Shomsyns TH {soinsomaye 


~—=s en ane ene e = gingio! fe enedbtnwed 
- = eobsd oon 19 900 10 berivp dob ton aynib lind io 
a i Se ee ere R814 bayer | as fv yas soe 
<a ee ee = + gtedast ni foodec 2! [120 


f= anssidud ue 


— - —_— ~— 
ai > 


wae ine 


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~ paced’. né soraiV eivod. savadon to gonis4d 


SHUTOSTINOAA | .TAI Gus “.TX4 YO Tia Teast 
alli entities iontiadiieadicedienlies os gabsost to antol 
en me te ee A ISTE) 


~~ 6 


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allek Lenrsdxs to noisowrsencd 


gate tua to ‘@olatvibdys faoiduey 
_seapte Io. adie rbdus’ ‘Iganga F604 
_ gbboo4 to hose tvibaui Yeoisrs’ ee 


bene. 


wae ha 


“moi sowstencd to nolgaeigKs — 
~~~ gedsosd beteoteaud 
-_—-= 5 eoheos? sedoid 
~- voinosa: ow? to autiolivd 
* aoitage isuoved “to agniblind - 


i 


ee Fs 


- 


quidens “Ws idd ‘yisdibto ai esbsor4 


~~ =~ ~ = aebeosl efits ie 

- =~ aebaasolod lo taomyolgal 
anny loo Se77 bas asysgad to eal) 
"eb" isasoiod elynia s to se] 
re ty ewobait yed bas aeinosisd. 


a 

Ze. 

«VL AVTGIVIG 
at. .godd 


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Per 


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Bh as 
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ee 
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boLiwa to Bask fertasd to Fem ye Tre 
te. 


sou om 


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sail 


aRCHITBCTURAL COMPOSITION. 


127, Subdivision by axes - ------ - meee ee eee 103 
126. Blevations and Sections -------------  -- 102 
a.’ building detached on all Sides - - =-----=+-=- -- = 104. 
1.:. Freely Grouped.-.-+---- == 9-3 3--—=- 104 
129,° Castle stordalen in ocweden - - = = = = ---=- = -~-—- - ~104 
&. wcymmetrical srrangement - - - - - mae eee eee -~ = = OF 
128. Gewandhans at Leipzig --- ----------=+-- -~ — 1OF 
b.: Buildings not detached on one or more sudes - - - - - - - 102 
1, Rectangular Ground, Plan - - - - = wae ee -- = = 10% 
121 Girl's school in Kamturg - ---------- poo = = TCU 
2. Partially Oblique Ground Form - - - - ------ - ~- 107 
122. Ealece of archduke Louis Victor in Vierna - - - - - = - 107 


DIVISICN IV. TREATMENT OF BAT. AND INT. ARCHIT&ECTUKs, 5y buhlaann - 108 


Chap.1. Forms of Facades - ----+---+--+------- ---- 109 
122.. General -------------------- - -- =— 402 
124,° Construction of axternal walls - ---------+--- 110 

25.: Vertical Subdivision of building - - ---- - - - - - 110 
12¢3 horizontal subdivision of building - - - - - - - ~-- 111 
a. Vertical Subdivision of Facade - =- ----------- 112 
127, expression of Construction - - - - - - yore ce ee ee Liz 
186. hkusticated Facades - -------------- - = = gie 
122. Richer Facadeés ~------------------- 114 
140,° buildings of Two stories -+-------------- 174 
141.: buildings of Several Stories ------- ------ 11 
142.: Facades in Crdinary brick Masonry - - - - — - - —- - - — 1i¢ 
142.° Sgraffito Facades - ------+------+--+--+----- pales 
144. Employment of Colonnades - - -----+------ . - 
145." Use of Engaged and Free Columns - - ---------- 12 
142,.- Use of a Single Colossal Order ~«--=<==£=2++222H828 1 
147, Ealconies and bay windows - ----+-+-2s2-2 2.8 122 
t horizontal Sutdivision of Facade = =<252< 226 ~=— = LEE 
148. ‘ietached buildings - -+#<+/---+-+-s4-522--225 tZE 
149,° Facades between Adjoining Buildin.s - - - - - - - - - = 122 
1fQ.° buildings with Rooms of Uneaual Height - - - - - - - - 122 
181. arrangement of Central sass of Building - - - - - - -~ - 124 
lf. Irregular. Grouping: ofifesign.o- = +262 4&2 os So 124 

Chap. 2 Internal architecture - - - - - - - - ~-------- tz 
E32. General ~ = <'— = = si oie an Sal ee ine eb a 8 wi ne RE 
a. kooms with Horizental Cealings --------- --~-- 124 


vedi j 1 i & 
> ay f t Fs a iy 
hoe i Dee he rie * os 2 
e 7 ee a ae : -= a f : 4 
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= SS -  * ~ 
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diet alede + ie. 


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r 12 Petes S 
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cas ~— ss per ea fehoow 


~ - oe we aftitgpanisa. ofdzna BBE 
sme wytgiten io thomtesat Bains 


dgiy stilie) InwJoyass 


~— ~ =. — adgeur! ool olsied¥ = SS? 
> = © 'BISTICO daty ansliso Ae 
_ me em aanisied betas bt 
“—<+ eee wuntlisd bedais x ; wes 
—-+s= B00] to eeversidow .24 
wate = - = Ban08 gemel :.08 
<--=-+~ amzizes meoiliecd 252 
- ~~ 3s watwillad 43am 2x0o - OST 
~ ne fd ge luorioiase 4p, al ist RE 
- - = ayniliso bes tues! agi aaoo! a 
SES a A ne ae asioat louest Sed 
pe em essee erige¥ ios) eee 
tess : “= las ee aa ina Pdi a baa tant ANE 
- ween OR 8 
- Slane "patantag’ S etiue¥ stow) 3% 


ied 


soe Bimemir ee | 10 aneitoenacd 
Pasi pe ie 


2 gaciue oi be sagt ‘eacod 
Jentes> dite 200% ts Rpitonias? 
“5 Ager ods gat : 


_ 
~~ 


ot 


er 


‘se =: he 2s Fl Ps 48 LF ad SeinseckG + ,PBr 
aoe t eee ee Bie io ane ld tee 
~abvetiolia) . 20> @eluditas’ “Set 
| a e0nis7109 feords £3t : 


¥ Pre VEG 


ey a0 


as sKChITeCTURal CCirCOITICek, 

1F4, base and Cornice of «all - -----+----- -- - - 
LEB.” wall tarestries - - - - - - SS a ee eee ee 
15é,- Mural Painting -------- ee ee ae = 
167, Pompeian Mural Painting - - - - - - i ong cel Se Jo te 
168. wooden wainscoting - -----+----+-+------- 
189,: warble wainscoting - -----+-+--+--+-+-+----- 
ico. Treatment of Ceiling- - - - - nr a me | ere TE a ea 
1é1,° Structural Ceiling with nooden beams - ---+---- -- 
1c2,. Visicle Roof Trusses ---------+----- > | sana 
1léc.° Ceiling with Coffers ----+----+--------+--- 
1¢4,° banded Ceilings - -------+------------- 
ic&. kainted Ceilinss - -------+-+-+------ ~ Px 
1é2.. architraves of boors ----------------- 
1é¢7,: Large noomp - ------------+---------- 
1e&, basilican Lesigns ---------+-+----- -— = 
1¢9.° Rooms with Galleries -~--------+----- -_— = 
170, Halls of Gemsicireular Fian -~-- eee ee eH - - 
b.: Rooms with Vaulted Ceilings - ---------- ---- 
171. General ----------+-----------+--- 
172,. Tunnel Vaults ----------------- ---- 
ive, Groin Vaults ------+--+---+--+++----+-- 
174.° Pendentive Vaults --------- ------+----+- 
Wve, Domes ---+-2+-2+£-------------- = 
17€, Groin Vaults friclosing panels - - -----+.- - a 
c. Connections of spartments - - - - - - - -~ awe ee ee eK 
iv?. kooms arranged in Suites - --------+--u- ---- 
7& Connection of Koo with Central building - --- -—-~- 
179.: Heightening the effec” — — = == Se a ee ~-~--- 
WIVISION V.. VESTIBULES? CCURTS aND haLLS. h.teener - - - - - - = - 
18C, General - ------- - - ee ee eee HH KH eee 
Chap.1. Vestitules and boorways, Entrance halls, Oerridors - - 
181," * Diversity In’ Pla ee eee eee ee ee a ee 
a. Plans of Halls =") Sees eee ee be oe et ee ee 
162, Vestitules, arcades, Collonades, «le. ~--= —~— ~.- — 
163. street Porticos and Verandas - - ----- a ae lace, 
1€4, Commecting Porticos and Promenades - ------—-- 
18h. Gtete Porticos and LogJgias - - - - - ~ wee eee ee 
18€, Treatment of Forticos ————'~ — 2 2 a 
1&”, Galleries, Corridors, ete. <= i A - - 


~ ry gre Dens it “ee eg See ee > 


Be. 


, a4 
ae 


Teas oes s6r 


tid * aharh Sault se »- 5 aie 4 i fat > - ae ae UY e 7 4 
ere Sere ree. Oa nolisooFSe8r 
oar Sie (eee. nh) hy trcen tee © ihre ety) 

Tiel etin beg tak apiece + 


al yhie hed eh aoe es = sagem afareys? _.00f 


fae ee me inane 
See a ee ae ee eS ee * 


- 

Bee 
mee 

Se tlk ew eo  <s ~  Seae sor 
i. 


me ee ee fs740% oft et 


ee Re ee ee ee en = amolsio4 a es eae 
eee A ee ee ee einai tugtienss BP 
pe ee ee ee es + alist eoneridd bas eeludives? |.9 
Pe ee me ee ee  @ olsigaey one | 5S! 
Pile apa pe + me = Lied gonetio’ edt at 
ar aay ee ie es a ee ne we Sree SeeTT =| GE car 
=- ee eae a eae eaperemiepetes ce 
SAE we ee ee we ee a me BWhiTIO. yoivish ~°.008 


Al a - = ne ee ee ny ocy'nrag to 19 Benet 5 26H 


ORE Se we ee ee ee Ginga sail ace aN 1 a 
eee = = i ~~~ ~~ = ~~ = .Incttoielt (AG. 
ee esdgitt RAyietia of egtede °°" 
een oe + ee + = Beas oTis3e SiytetIs ‘Se 
wie - + = = = + BdAZiLT Lsu9ved ai neesotig# OO 
Sm me aw S OSyslT Owl gf aaaeorigds ee: 
mane 7 = “se eo sees ~ = = efdgelt oerll gi-asesowless OB 
ete ee ee eee ab TT, wot si seanoiiss2 «.1S 
ss = baiduol qo esdonstd owT oi seacotig {2-898 
sees mae eee ee a + eonsomie ss paibara ‘3 
) : Sr ess + re ee OO ee pe oe Og pmtot fait 0 


1 
i 
t 
iy 
i 
; 
; 
t 
; 


t 
i 
t 
1 
: 
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- 
' 


bai: oe -- =r A - high te. te ae om en =" aar9T baweqac? ore 
- ie aa Nee Oe ~ geasots da ‘to mio% dna: Pagme yes LA et 

ny ieein =. ee aseeoTi erevind oe tte. PES. 
; tee Bac be Fe ay ee he 


Fis: i 
Eee bas i’ feqioain? bigs pas enas is 
hee ee. Be {or aan 2 


e8 
~~ 


“4 
} 4 he 
ve = 


Sas 


: el 


ie 
BARAT ASA 


25 
- 
E ad 


AP # + i ae 
ESS As: 
Eos se 


t 
; 


aaee 


aie - oN. 
exe 
it a 


eee + 
as ee 


*, 


_ Bntrances and voorways -----<--+--+-+--+------ 
18&, The entrance - - - - - nit tk’ hn, tin. ae ai sol an age SR 
189, Location ------- meee eee ee Se a ae 
190.. Separate Entrances - -----+--+--—--+=+--<4 ban at, 
194,- The Portal. si je ao mek ee ee eer eee et ine 
192,, Forms - ----+-------+ so sams ipl tal) paige ieee ae pa z 
192." sritrafice: Portites = = so a gee ee ee : 
i94,: Carriage Porches -----------+----.. 
"O5. Carriage Passes - - - - - - -— ee ee ee eK eS 
c.: Vestibules and entrance Helis —. Sc gee eee 
196." The Vestibule = 5. a-ncd- ses one en Ae es ee 
197, The Entrance Hel [oe tess ee ces we eee ee ee 
ISG, * Treat merit. nm me er ya ee esa 
igg, Pecoulleritiesis <= — a 6 Sele eee ee 
eUO 8 Naibing Corrido: ia see on oe ee ee hee 

Chap. 2." . Plans of Stadrwaye. cx tfc my) ee et ce ne ee 
C04. General! — so i ah ee se ee pie 
a.’ Poyns of Staircases =". — 6 — — ooss oo eee 5 
We, HiBLOridal. 9 i— a ieee ee els so hie, ola ae et ae a 2 

1,, stairs in Straight Plaznts os). i ne és 
OO3,. straight Staircases '— 2 — 5.1 4.2 0 2 Ae 
4, Staircases in several Flights - --~.|/-.. 258 . 
05, Staircases in Two Flights - - - - ~ - edt eto Sc eae 
aie, Staircases in Three’ Flights —- — — ~ — 2 G..iae eee 
a07,. Staircases in Four Flightp =o =~, = = sce eee 
c0&.: Staircases in Two branches or Loubled - - - - -— - = 

é.. winding Stalrcases.: = —1- (= 2 eee ees 
£09, Simple Porme:: mm = a oe ee eae Chee eee es : 
210. Compound Forma | = gee sere ec 
t.° arrangement and Form of Staircases - -------— 
ead. “Kain and Private Gtay-ceeeeet ee oe ee 

1, Letation' and Directegns we eee ee eet pete 
clz,: Location and Principal Landing - -------. 
elg, accessibility and Separation - - - - - —---- - 
ela.” * Direction ~\ "2.20 o | Selene ee ae ee ed lege ~ 
ele. Beginning and miding of staircases .- «~~ ia i 
eles Twitt Sletreagee oa. re ee ee es ee 
el7.” Growoe Of Stairescea | =e ee ee a eae, 

é," arrangement and Treatment of Forms - -----— 
218," Space Required: so. ~i— Sore ey po a eee 


ARCHITBCTURAL COMPOSITICN. | 


ca alll aati aac ec rea se = oS 
Oy Me D1 TOY OS COS GS oe Ee, ae 
o> the oN AS 20 29 Sa es ee 


Oo & oOo 8 As 


FA pS 
m ©) 
ae) 


= ~ be. ~ ae  gbindé. ies gndinas inet “rs 
i: Son cual aati ‘to #dyelT Yo deyaed - ~ BS 
{ RE tne - on a me i atts se | to sdyhlT to debit 88s 
3 ¥ au =. ‘at cae lial oe ee egaibas. to anoinnewit 2338 
“ne ‘Th esteteaial “wee ee ee em ee sle s+ ~ yakedgid «838 
— ee ae ee ee - eatol to troncass? ss 
; . “ het hai eis we am aim eswoo to angiaed ‘le qed) 
aon = saa oe Re we =i leet artical tien {evened “85 
| te = + IIsotiotetd 868 
Stee ine wae te ee ee erent fi siewogne TIA 5 
Stewie's -+-5- Se Re ee ee MEISOOI. - TES 
Bia ie ee ee eae halk “886 
: enofanenkd «SS 
SST ~— aoisoes _,06S 
YE nw. asnibtind yi bebavorms yilsitiwg atwoo beaofosk 
ot 7: ee a ee ee ray i octal ln Me ejmo0 becnel © .[hS 
; nh me Bi aan eh eae sk a oe EOD. aN SES 
Stas eo -+-- Hoe ne Fite Se a + seaED wok - 85S 
= ~ ~_— ee bsau00- deans lD.t¢ Hersvoonl besolont vo 
ew eee me ee ee ~- BODEPIOT dtin afwod 265 
“=> = pheals-bycrmeaiha dereke: «oe ge LS payor ‘,a8S 
-—- - a ee ~ «= + goitevela efiT .S8S 
ee ne oe ee = + tO DaRelD TRS 
ee ee ie a a ee Hm = Od WOD belooli-sasiD S82 
ho ee ee eH eS alist egies to empioe® .b .qedd 
ie ane ee ee ee ee ee fergie .GES 
ee Re we ee ee em ~ alin to em10l Isoigyl » 
| ee" cal oso halla cal aad sath ies ete ae asoiliasd sup isos fare 
ei: emer coe te ee FF - etied « a@tted te elled _ af BS 
Bras ine : ce eee - + elied bas sagiliasd savol ©2556 
- had loge an ~~ - eettjeodd idgaa bas agiicenT .5h8 
ett 4 i Sand pu bas ayeeblinud besiieitae) dd8 
2 ie ae oo a mss eile. Tas NE elied fevesibed .ada 
ieee me ~sboited a1ebox bose gaseeismeh at pelleif:. ARs 
A ree ee ee ee pl bed. fo w10% bas: cay cgae = 
kee eatin ~ Be ~ ror Bene ooed to. <pauadeepelt 
ae aa Ps ope 
: oa ei * a 
hdd sao mheat Aa uaa 


ea 


a i 


> ~- a ah biel tad — = ee ee ee oe 


ease ee ee 
_ J 


ARCHITECTURAL COXPOSITICN. | 


219, Inclination and Stride - --+--- a Se ait Se 20! Sn (le 
220.: Length of Flight of Steps ----+--+--+--- Py Se as 
221, Width of Flight of Stairs - ------+--+---+-.+-- 
eec,. Dimensions of Landings - -------+-- we ee ee 
223.. Lighting - - -:---------+-+--+----- Peo ee 
224. Treatment of Forms -------+++-+---+-+-+-+- ae a 
Chap.8,. Designs of Courts ------+-------- Lio loge as 
£e6.: General - -----------=+= ss ile galore ae Ma hs Pkt ee 
226. historical - ---ji---------------- - 
a. arrangement in General - ------------- Lo eee 
227.: Location - =—- -.- ---=<=<=+s+4£4-.-+454- = 
2e8.: Groynd Form ------+~-+---+-++-+-+--+---. bom 
220. Dimensions - --------- Seco oy, hae cee eee ame ye  inge 
220.: Section ----------+------------ ae 


b. &nelosed Courts partially Surrounded by buildings - ~ - - 
221.' Penced. Courts = — =.= 4: =) Sie eee ee 


232, Fore Courts - ---------------+---+-+- 
eeg.: Rear Courts ---------------------- 
c.. Enclosed Uncovered or Glazed Courte@ - - - - - - - - - == 
e34.° Courts with Porticos -----------+--+--- -=-- 
228.: Ground Flan ---------------+---+---- - = 
236.. The Blevation - - -------+---+-------+--+-+- 
ear. Glazed Courts - ~ —= = =~ = (6 2 2. 2s Ss Sa - - 
‘oc. Glass-Roofed Courts) (= — == 2] 3 Se oo eee - - 
Chap.4.: Sesigns of Large Halle: 2: ye te es Se 
239, General me, xe me me ee ee a ee ee 
&:. Typical. Forms of Haldia i Se ce ce ee ee 
@i0,: antique Basilicas == —e 4) 2 eel =e a - = 
241. Halis of Baths) = =, oo sec een cebee yk eo e e Oe - - 
r4c.: House basilicas. and. Haligo— = = ee le ee on te 
243,: Theatres and amphitheatres - - -— = - —- 42s -.- = 
244, Centralized Buildings and Church basilicas --- - - 
245. Mediaeval Halls =«6 <—=— =< - = at ha | feae 
24€. Halls in Renaissance and Modern Periods - ~ - - - - — - 
b.: arrangement and Form of Halls- - - = - - oh: ie) Set ae ae 
£47, - Classification Of abbas Uo Gitte ieee ng ae ot 
1,. Limitations of Space and Wain Form - - - - - - ---+-+- 
248, acoustic and Crtic Center see Mi A ah a ge 


249, Limits of Good Hearing -------++-2+-+-. -- 


= 


b> pk RN 
SY ON Sy wD 
a ae * 


COIN 


fund 
ry) WY 


peat 


eB) 


ae 
BOC HONE LY 


DO. 08 


fx 


pd 


mn 


ateol “geriso 


- ieee bo08 tot Noilabibbeus 
pinta «= = duemegantt: nt ysiatevid 
ek ie Ea ge ee cf jnsmeyaetté 
natal ile eile yo ringed 
es thraecarteg essai otcae’ bee) Pergapey chau 


ay ee ne ge er 


vat lead 20 emgiaed 


~ pA ik ~~ -. ™ .OAotaaen ss 
Hm oe ne gailies 20 mot 
Ce te me HOE Jeno. 


-. ie -, - - 


Me ee ny 


‘om: Pa - ~ 


ie] 


AS 


ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN. 


Ground Form of Hall - - - - 


— eee 


Acoustic Niches - -------- 


Other Means for Good Effect of Tone 


Requirements for Good seeing. - 


Diversity in sAfrangement - 
arrangement in Detail - - - 
Lighting --------- 
Proportions of bimensions - 
Designs of Halls ---- - 
Dimensions -------- 
Form of Ceiling - ---- - 
Lodat vonviiass se) ele e eee 


_ 


~ 


_ 


— 


a er ee ee ee eee 


-_-— =—|- —_—_— —_— = 


Be 


norma ‘aaurerTuoRA a 2 ia’ ia: eajeone Crane 
OR id ¢ iy roms so¢as tord qa: > UNIVERRITY OF PERI OTS, 
emia Tota : Ce ee oummbe ULE L KL 


| “ae  eaogaeg pi tatie 6 evies saya paren peavd i. ixow bas pitbizud ¢aevd- 

Pi a Eas «Cotas 08 of ,wldsdine Jeom af gotblind. jad? ,peoqiwq aing gatiliiivk ro 
| sae sblind eds Yo Seogty edt ot botine eves oan wth? bas SUNG TG J QB ‘oe. 
a eanocs etom Pia esponrabaigh goed? Sastervebay ot eyaood d of gukeoela bas iat 

,bezetea ed ered Jana dundoss idea né aaobi Yuentey end , leds 
tere odd dtiw brooos faylt-teum di .tin asi Lililvt of esusouites ods t0% 
A bar Juwngoleveb qot. ‘eRpatio Him naccos ot dceidus ots Hostin ,esoktionds ted 
= prpesncra taelgike bas evidiatds gif beltiboa eved ao Léestiivio to dnomods tex 
shaen ni aneidoty wed, “pas Bowed, Wert gaioubory et Lean Ei HOD yeiki IW sitaem 
or % i (eelvant evissero e' nem of bene qo at ainaok dtinttal aa  .yedwr biot 
gn pe ve ‘sot ioexs God amor baie etd ydrrowny od of wa otoatn one ne aeidorq of 
iA “iaeasags thoad 40% ewal edt. ,G00L 32 bRoo ede eavevih tavewon < .ceaty atd 
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a ‘fies. ¢letelgaos ad: agen YO - aiow etd 40% “vain kine git0 jasizit Bik bay tee 

BT * ite iitiod Jaua sus tose (otutan %) adouborn oi? erxtl ,e@ogiug off 
i te eriine edt wrot edeingorggs ‘eis isd bine tt Of bonylaed 
pa Gini 3h: pelien Fons: ome i wae fo AQARBE TGR Sued «ed 
to sneaunow Mad vom i aie gninses Iewbs aa, and ‘igi. ak * | 
bas? eft tina eaiwedti ti dua goede cogs wiage? of omnes of wh bie : ( 

68950 — ac ptamabate basins notisve 6 “prague bade eye we VL 
bey  teeASD iuthspeay. re sabsheggets 
Sees eahine: law toodtdons 3D; pwn at hoon ae Pe 

i ves iiie: diugatente x htae fo dents afaandt ies ade eek we. 
ag La  Bhupexe axogghide., bas” samtali’ om yo nk, miitihduoe waaS etn 
nth -allg . ra. aa Fou: eiodto” OTE eats jg ites on vatipen “bate ev iodine, yeone 
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edt ot aqesdigy AE” ‘oh sabi cont do. Oh: said iabietee old fate ba. si H 


“ny " ae ’ 


rea 
* 


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pare ARbrsdNe. bits nme ynem” te vIto Te benkgaea” ‘neasapes ad longs. ie 
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7)  WEeito heen snad ait eybe praia todoaend yur 
yea ME : aged: “to gaa ode yd gasp hted wd Teo" 
( abe Sion tobias ieuvdootisow — ti 
va Ne-bebis fw tivaaed ele to naky- 
| J eoigonpds ‘ad ot anb! exiieard pai | 

7 of yt papaied 480203. pon etne ae 

eerinen. at sth ~ bide * 


0 rin tte 
5 


11 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN. | 
PROBLEM AND AIM OF ARCHITECTURAL CRBATION.: 
by Professor wagner.’ 
i,: Primary Ideas... Ae 
Every building and work of human creation must serve a definite ad tc 
For fulfilling this purpose, that building is most suitable, to woien 
an appearance and form are given, suited to the purpose of the build- 
ing and pleasing to theeye.: To understand these requirements more accur- 
ately, the primary ideas in architecture must here te stated: 

For the structure to fulfill its aim, it must first accord with tne mater- 
ial conditions, which are subject to constant change, for development and 
refinement of civilization have modified the primitive and simplest reguire- 
ments of life, continuaily producing new deeds and new problems in mani- 
foid variety.: An infinite demain is opened to man's creative impulse; 
no problem is so minute as to be unworthy his mind, none too great for 
nis grasp.’ nowever diverse the conditions, the laws for their treatment. 
are invariable. we obey the eternal rule of nature, evident in its low- 
est and its highest organisms. : For the work of men to completely fulfil 
its purpose, like the products of. nature, each part must fuifil the function 
Ssigned to it and van the appropriate form.: The entire structure must 
be’ 2 truthful expression of the ideas, that. called it. into existence. 

If the.work has an ideal meaning as a worthy. monument of human creation 
and is to endure to future ages, then must it likewise suit the tendency 
of the human mind toward elevation and perfection, and must appear in 
graceful and beautiful form: : 

--&.: Nature of architectural Creation, 

This gives the requirecents that clearly distinguish works in architect- 
ure from creations in other arts.,: Painters and sculptors execute while 
they conceive and require no assistance from others.’ Not co with the arch- 
itect. For the creative mind is in architecture more intimately connect- 
ed with the material than in other arts: it is subject to the laws of 
Science, must satisfy conditions of construction, and for the embodying) 
its results, requires combined efforts of many men and expenditure of money 
not necessary in Painting and Geulpture, still less so in Poetry and Music, - 

In every tranch of knowledge, the judgement chiefly executes the erection 
of the Luilding by the art of construction.: But if this is to become an 
architectural creation, knowledge of. the true must be joined with percep- 
tion of the teautiful, aided by imagination. It is-not sufficient for 
the creative idea to be clearly and truthfully expressed; it must appear in 
dudicious forms, pleasing to the eye, to be understood,: It is not enough ~~ 
for each part to recieve the form best saapeet to the. Foquirenent essign~ 


ot © Ylixsmig at dh ,leiisiced odd wedlanae sce * ae 
rok okt of at .ear0t obtatias Agi. gosh ttudody i wotie sxe, ene 
$ We Jos ton ob bas boosarsden yliaee aesl ots saxod xe voiyie ety 
- t eek ‘gerito to wolemeiqve ‘lo aebon ods ai ae ldoeuth os oho 
iow Bitew Jaow 07 . omdien mort beawel sd of ‘OMNU ane & of gnofed - 
Hap : lak odd to sate bata. sofa tke ade To sone 1999948, at “rod etatog) | 
. ty | fede to d4eq dose bie, ‘moot tots {bow iaowisd bac berglewh e¢ of eve 

tt 2 ent Jo &fiw4 + eroquug. wel Of belive Joetie Wed? eved tena’ ani 

(AO dnesemg Oh as bobivib bas “hoquerg ‘Ot..02 at ete en6 ge salaolons 
seswag loos “2S b dtow ‘ot bovinpst es feut ,doelte gilagetg & sonse 


ia agi gee sind berebiano- ed ad Os anolskhace ote the bae | 
. ats 49, SHOR EAO HT: on Le ne 


‘ 688: akieah ioe sporerenieg Aa i ss eons aha 
: olgentypas is mewog odd seriupa wid? -Qt0les.\te qobae Iga bus ack 
a peeaere mt tines eid geetg ov olds asiviookteeb ys heagtivas ° 

n MOtsabtedos rerio tod enolase yaue wovieiel) asitbeb oe bas welgy 
omg gue’, Actas © ‘yatsaie? ‘to eodutatecs. eds a@ilupes eins 


mC a 1800 eral mode dgiv MObenbiade wt dasod gatas ot eeu, 
Pe UE. te eite pr hdoatet adit. do. aepow emi line, | 
8 ery pore ar i bowel Lot ed of wives ‘old etanibal eeeit © 
po Lexegoe sido nai °.bedowet od of nia add bos esudoed 
; te gxe jedd oghe luond brie eomatos to Aotdsanebnoe a ot agie 
tiger Ps A @if to tovexyo ey wort batiepe om bac 
¥ aah Asuee oe il espana iu? ak erpohatiuate asebt to 


Bia oy pt: : abla ta te > estan eLet on tab node A Loe ; 
auhaeent ne pi sadgnd exotewas me ‘ahhe atiahins ont : 
Es aidos ythows “WE d6e2 iow oid 36 me Ldorg. ‘gioe ens ae 
ca Seah to ‘gegasm @ 31). Et dw utbae ton esoste.ty 
yi woo ont dain: setnatares wine agitaeta, ote 


| Pateds ‘Yo sHeeteatd éyisowtie ToL avottesol: et FO 19 emu) pele 


Fea is 


Aes ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, | snes 
ed to it in the entire organism; this form must at the same time be ébeau- 
tiful.: In representing the teautiful, it 1s primarily essential epi 
the exterior of the building with artistic forms, according to Oe ae 
jersi ib a e feel- 
the style; art forms are less easily understood and do not act on i Ane 
; j i ‘ i arts, since they 
ings so directly, as in the modes of expression of other art “, 
% Qut: ature.’ For most works in areh- 
belong to a language to be learned from n * OE a 
4 ad the * the inter 
itecture, both the appearance of the exterior ane that of : 
: - each room and each part of the build- 
are to be designed and harmonized; each room 
t ‘f ‘ted to its purpose.’ Parts of the structure 
ing must have that effect suited to 1Us purposy. | Been 4 
» to be so grouped and divided as to present on a 
enclosing space are vo 60 & : : . 
Slaes a pleasing effect, just as required for works of sculpture,’ Local 
and climatic conditions are to be considered, and affect plan, arrangement, 
and also treatment of forns.. | 
These cen only obtain the consecration of art by regularity in arrenge- 
ment and harmony of proportions, attaining perfection ky appropriate decora- 
tion and splendor of color. This requires the power of imagination, not 
confused by any difficulties, able to grasp the peculiarities of the pro- 
y F p ' 
‘splem and to deduce therefrom suggestions for cheracteristic expression, 
This requires the assistance of Painting and Scubpture, for which Architec- 
ture creates locations fcr offective treatment of their reproductions, in . 
re ) 4 
order to bring forth in comiination with them the most perfect and most 
sublime works of the formative arts.: | 
These indicate the paths to be followed by the creative theught in archi- 
tecture, and the aim to be reached,’ For architectural composition or de- 
sign is a condensation of science and knowledge, that experience, science 
and art required from the creator of the building. It manifests the triad 


of ideas summarized in fulfilment of purpese, truth of idea, and beauty of 
form... | 
2 


v.' Two-fold Problem of architect.: 

_ The artistic side is therefore emphatic in designing a Luilding, tut is 
snot the sole problem of the architect in architectural composition, his 
labors not ending with it.: If o master of his art in the full sense, 

his creation only terminates with the completed structure, and to realize 
this, he must be both master of form and construction,’ He must te such in 
concéiving, and still more in cojpleting the design, for the construction 
is the means of its realization) As constructor, he selects and employs 
the building meterials according to their natural peculiarities and con- 
ditions; by the aid of science and experience, he chooses the method and 
System adapted to the materials; he dimensions parts of the structure in 


accordance with their loads, and urranges them to best suit their purpose, 


: ae Sata ty eae ss ciao Hom idl : 
A ake ee as scsi edt yd meds bs satoons: taney: af : 
a laseracce paaarennii bus ehtow si diuot Joe ylaaelo baa eudt hewget?, ’ 
te up tokssoexe 40% yheot al, giow adt bedemisee bua benotanomsh 
“‘totse79 ad et ed aedw eatped toes idows eit 30 atodsl 30 saltea ‘wen 4 4 
Ee DP casstless ag nals geotoo bas woksuooxd ‘ oaciea welini ete ai sxow eid to 
| “oa Yo aongieob ed? =.befoennco yletsaidat damon din Yreve at as .eniv 
ee: deoliaus att neve ,baia ald to queda eft ti ovig soum gntblind 
Atte scien ne nemeto3 eeaneyfe tone {Lit daum ,te0eexev0 ati es bas 


; ie 
: ‘es 
Ss 


aes S wheeqae qitet yen nyjiaeb to ud Lows odd ni honed: 40 wel eld dntiis a 
 pateetd oi qu dfiind ese hae ,noldéwutdent Yo wwod na mi beatveb esw sadif 
+ eb eisioataispe: isatetni bas nate ddew jeetaoo to Sour - gaieub 


¢ bho sonsiexatteg ot. oh sede ad bas eons iu phpenidteh eit: aebau 
ed. jeuw ‘wbaead bre aate lo Shed? bea oent seve dotew deva ,soldyb 
boatni, bite Hoste tance vine = be | 
‘tobi bud to: oldest. ve | 


38 daebaadatreque. etd, nebau Ai pad. nents. wee 4 greener 
ft j dose. ak adie tbe que. ‘to, s8eonlegd to egbolwond etd yd bas 

= j evtanederquoo eid nt doatidess ed? bis of at of Babliso 
; ROtSGe capsid edt tot alatiten seed ont eutlqqua od ..meldorg 


ery pCO Se Lacieis ® HL ola mre patbliod eid 
scatters ‘to thebiotatreque- etd to nisaod edd ered dotae of” 
“30 Biees ovitsero odd doodorg has adiatl ati xtt ot tad ab dutatoeh 
 ;bleit. fwid¢kost bos beowd 8 ved dood  daomios orpie wort toecidote:. : 
feds dost :.tootidow odd o¢ asus bas dnebaeingwque edt of acbett, 


ob eoltive ton, weob eff! comud. dads \ovianesxe Ok ote nkendb 


bogey ai eeatdaos santigguetphd qa. ae bres aqoda Xtow halt 


Atal oat  gedtous nogy dosoroce Jom. bas pwo ais Ag iw ioedooe - hs 


1O8 ft edt of eub ovo. eno ens Yo one gi letng bas ynrene etidae eft %. 


se oft to afasiat exttae ed? bas \Satlteo aid to adrenarivper 
t wewee! capone ak wave tee Bad Pa  wepapti Ayia ede ertoe 


° as eee atsie okbenak: egos nokenovat Yo eng ager 
setters: — 9. cc vedo | 


e - 
e . . 


18° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
Their formal treatment id then by the artist.: 

Prepared thus and clearly set forth in words and drawings; spotnel eae 
dimensioned end estimated, the work is ready for execution.: 

\ A new series of labors of the architect begins when he is the creator 
of his work in the fuller sense.: Execution and conception in architect— . 
ure, as in every art are most intimately connected., The designer of the 
building must give it the stamp of his mind, even its smallest details, 
and as its overseer, must fill assistants, foremen and workmen with this 
spirit, to set stone on stone, join member to member, and create a work 
in which the law of harmony and the unity of design may fully appear.: 
what was devised in an hour of inspiration, and was built up in his mind 
during long days of contest: with external and internal requirements, de- 
mands months and years of continuous labor, the work of skillful hands 
under the architect's guidance, and he must aid the performance of their 
duties, must watch over them, and their claims and demands must be sub, 
ject to his examination and control.: 

‘.  4,.: Problem of Builder.: 

With the beginning of the practical duties of the architect, the work 
enters a new phase, has passed under the superintendent of construction, 
and by his knowledge of business, of expedients in each branch of his 
calling, he is to aid the architect in his comprehensive and difficult. 
problem.: he supplies the test materials for the work, prepares this in 
workshops and at the building, combines it according to directions and 
rules, arranges the labor as most rational and preferable, and erects 
the building rapidly and in a masterly manner,’ 

we enter here the domain of the superintendent of construction, not to 
diminish it, but to fix its limits and protect the creative realm of the 
architect from encroachment.: Bach has a broad and fruitful field; the 
trades to the superintendent and arts 40 the arene Bach should be 
content with his own and not encroach upon another. The limits of each 
domain are so extensive, that human life does not suffice to exhaust them.: 
The entire energy and intelligence of the one are due to the increased 
requirements of his calling, and the entire talents of the other to truly 
solve the high problems of his art.: Even in works of lesser importance, 
the master of trades and the master of arts should work together.: 

5, Division of Architectural Lator.: 

The power of invention acts together with the creative force of thought; 
thus the purely artistic labor of the architect differs from his scien- 
tifie duties as a constructor. : 4& division of labor: is possible in many 
cases, and even to be desired, although-union in the same person with 


P afl 


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5 weee0 " ek it. vatlaas oh peta ios. in to one 
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. Pie: tee ial as aa. edu to iia | eda tedio edt a base 
Bia i" A 7 ‘Waar Kraan BA _igdaa teed 


en ond a pcoai dora. edd. “0s quooon ‘o 1 pablosd oved ae soodbasd ehia to ; 
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pias itd ¥ Dasnoyne ts pre apres ues ed NES a nytaders 46 
Rat [hos denne yliedad. od you tasJrogud wT gtd 
ta: b oF sabe ab bas “agiess, edd iat ameqqes yniblivd 9 to aelg ent y’ 
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@ yustmemsle eeoamen of abi iada to eghelwons t9o3t00, 6 bre 
Yo eredaea {oteau & nts aassaye pratins eins aand ongd nos oft 
a ag A oo). > ghey Cece kpc Detar 
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a aaa (=e tetthayte dosde 
; eae e 8, alain Cai: ovitos a6 bee doelet eteaal fk - 
Pere A 2s yun, Lagahly totisesed bas oni (sue ‘ 

By ae to nodutosiened: Xo: egbe lwonk atetvooA 8 
ond etidoes: to sudan ott ae taote, ban .emret sed 
lane : S rate Ldotng. 
es elds. ‘Od: ae ibe inbadesion ‘pas. tmeneybug egih 
Ie" vid sfiouu _ bids Rs gudaipe ab su haa etd 


ee ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
mastery of soience and knowledge is possible.» It is always necessary 
for the architect to also, be'a constructor; but is not required for the . 
cénstructor to be an architect as well. For the former is the realm of 
judgement; for the latter is the demain of creative imagination, or as 
in the motto of the beginning of this division; for one is the prose, 
and for the other the poetry of the ari. 

6. Designing.: 

To enter the domain of architecture, comprised in the last division 
of this handbook, we have decided to accompany the architect to the end 
of his problem, which is the embodiment of the design made by him.’ he 
have therefore followed his work from the primary requirements and its 
first conception; have passed over the broad domain of his creation and 
his lebors to build up a clear idea of the branches, to which all oth- 
er trainign converges, the design, plan, and arrangement of the build- 
ing. The important may be briefly summarized. 

‘<The plan of 2 tuilding appears in the design, and in order to design 
a building, one must be a master of construction and a master of form.’ 

To me a master of construction means: -- 

1,: An acquaintance with nature and properties of building materials, 
and a correct knowledge of statics, to compose elementary structures and 
to combine thes. into rational systems and useful members of an architect- 
ural organism. 

2,.-oseession of ripe experience, to pay due regard in construction 
to technics of trades and requirements of mode of execution.: 

&,. Addition to this knowledge of whatever may be necessary to make 
effect of exposure to weather least, and to conform the building to re- 
quirements of sanitary sclence., 

These branches must te assumed as known in designing and planning build- 
ings.’ He must also satisfy the second condition and be a master of forn, 
which signifies:-- 

1,. Innate talent and en active mind, with an earnest impulse to create 
sutlime and beautiful things.: 

2.: Accurate knowledge of masterpieces of art, grasping the meaning of 
their forms, and fathoming the nature of architecture, to be equal to its 
problems, : 

Ripe judgement and self-knowledge, to be able to embody the creations of 
his imagination in accordance with the unchangeable laws of architecture.: 
Where may the architect find art forms more beautifully and complete- 
‘ly developed than in the best architectural periods? ithere may the desigs 

and conetrtien of monuments be better studied, than in the styles of 


‘Se galntesy } to pent man i Sion patti Finn 
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a 
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aa" 


> a ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
great periods? These pranches of training are therefore assumed.’ In 
designing and planning buildings, we have only to apply these primary — 
‘branches aad to draw our conclusions.’ 

whoever has made all these branches of science and art his jntellect- 
ual property and has grasped the requirements of the problem, derived 
from custom, habit and from civilized life, possesses the science and 
knowledge, whose sssence +5 architectural composition. : 
Architectural design must also combine truth of thought, beauty of forn, 
_ and fulfilment of purpose.: These are the primary laws, which must first 
be understood with perfect clearness.’ These were succeeded by studies 
of proportions in architecture, of planning buildings in general and in 

‘of trestment of forms of external and internal architecture, and 

iess developed veatibules end corridors of buildings.’ 


detail, of 


PE a an aige . Yoraues “Plage ta ep 
7.* Seience of Buljding.: 


; * 4 ‘ . 


jpis academic essay ss now followed by what is briefly designated " 
Ssience of Building".: This comprises thorough consideration of all kinds 
of buildings, arranged in divisions, each comprising several sections. : 
The course for each species of puilding, after a brief glance at its his- 
torical development, is that the requirements of the building, its form 
of plan, treatment and arrangement are investigated and deduced from its . 
purposes and uses, from tradition and the progress of civilization.: Ty- 
pical examples serve as illustrations. : 

The title expresses limitation to a definite creative field exclusive- 
ly belonging to the architect.: As structures should be classed all ex- 
tensive works of engineers, bridges and tunnels, hydraulic and harbor 
works, compared with the works of the architect as corresponding to them, 
and which must be regarded as suitable objects for the effective devel- 
cpnent of architecture.’ Yet for convenience, a division of the work be- 
tween the architect and the enginesr was long since made, and we shall 
therefore omit structures where conditions of use and suitability do not 
permit requirements of art to assume control, and those in which tech- 
nical conditions are to be fulfilled.: But all in which artistic force 
predominates, or is nov entirely suppressed, from the smallest problems, 
content with grace and effect obtained with the most limited means, up 
to the most important undertakings of art, for whose execution the labor 
of an entire generation is required, will be subjected to critical con- 
‘sideration, while we study their typical peculiarities.’ 

Narchitectural Composition" and "Science of Buildings" necessarily be~ 
long together and materially. extend each other.’ the have clearly fixed 
the ideas of both and have limited their domains.’ Architectural Compo- 

. 


n th ESS MOLE LAG INO) TRG IIATEHCRA . ae 


or te soe ies en: feohtoroadd bai Laoiien edt ot Rotthe’ ~ 
Wey Maas ylsia : tea g id ~~ pee vam quihed 
“4 has ep * yt A viet ca 
er Se ee) aaantontad caganaa “2 noriena 
Mb Gi yy seme ‘Moteaton somostons jeelaaars 
ae “oc qintiaa ‘ iavemed 3,8. 


ate 


rT ha ‘be0d ae Hols snishue Gabber Hots’ ¢Stounsen eds ak dedt 
Pema to dliee's en? as $% avingooe't af Tadetigine c? & bib étesw bne 
to aalnet elf aor? bedoslloo bie ooneggeoxe--apet avexk — + iftats bane 
sot ‘.tlgeeh exos etsiteds% Jaya. ow fd Bates. ast hott o¢ eG :.dad Sas 
snes. gremiig of stile teva ov Baokegenic ‘@sede of T8were ‘xeqorg a. 
ik - @dse%0 biuow ef dadw woot sort! duow aco ‘npteed LF eeogqnon st 
i pak jooise pds te agsal staan 40 oobi nid’ bon. sebl jie ved oF ef 
eretoed iioh > egadweth “d nok Jassene qe’ Date agonweils. flut n& dao 
retilyuods eviisen % to oii tienetgs “eels e. encouads ai gatos te | 
Sueaseoit Yo awed [see 10% ‘eetowes baie end ~eeodieetd bas tdgtl- gris 
-atesd odd at bauotg elquie s-suggcot bas 800839 nott seauao a1etit | 
ewisa to fedt at es .dus to lesa ‘etd ond @ Listeng dotdw bas . tis te 
> ak etaixe yliisatr fads ag isvlove io wel Iewiete edd si obi? 
iti gone teixe otat affeo te tus ¥i>- ved do lity «0 Pyon oinegto add te 
viadd boe wog of 32 yok Sfhaweq te ixe Qiitesey ati sot amodedh | 
ne edt sonvans ti aed nolionet ast alzilot ne iio 9de18 qos 
Hiddwst ed yaa ogade: elit ‘todd 480 woded™ reget ‘igdexeda ete 
Lesoqurd eitt adf alihtn? Ul isec aie hno git te < tutta 
vata) eved oY: Seupdos) Mets to nbowod: oily od Lovieteass? 
Padiwin a : stoke Lnoqaoo issstees ito to vel ado end etag 
ne é pe da gaods. ito diets Sang to proud fist qasent. to he ite 
; waold hive gofeveb ilar $e seats Yo ost. Ry te atéor od? aire?) 
7 eonoies: Pores freq, eger20% ss ytivous4, ont fo exneu [Int edd deb. 
sO% ig “aguendt shaelt baie dthat Siti J uptekoes® ‘ertsdemn'ed. iisg off ‘0am 
} is a bas sovienwoe Rte itiie gene ew Jad ‘ dingiglowe'saso Is saen’ . a 
. Val geod . siginob feutteel iviews vtotdw “spgetog. ‘totdo- odd tea in 
mal ie eee yetlidemd bas wiilidediag 2 ‘gotqsta 
enddoag ed? edadtont tht boat liveth: 40. Bfremetinget. edt 
gat hoe tneageleron ovinae tigers, eons (ylotint tel ety 
le td nbees Govbesg-etht Y6 macidtanso fonveamt has fon 
) ie eld ide Bie le jotsgediinss Gt anckinow wea eangn 
fs pd yaad’ Esusoqusy o¢ doojdus-e1 eff f to ebees oped? : 
git © alleen zpatbfivd edt Ao eonosaize to eaottdb 
c* Spa) fog edd wt aolt, sae aude dud -.tanngel * ot. te 


oo die a cea bias 


hy Bes ie ” 
ot Pt oe } ~ ‘es 
4 : ; a - 
, Ki i yy , Lodied 
en Bin we i Had " 7 ah 
pe ey AS y 
A=” Os. AM aah ea ¥ 


Dees are ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
sition is the gsneral and theoretical portion, the Science o of Bu uilding 
being the special and’ prack deal part.- 


ecu oe OMPOAT, DPTNATOL WS - 
: SECTION a GENER AD PRINCIPLES. - 
EY pe can giter Di Fe a OE OM, BO ae ee 

By Professor Heinrich wagner,’ 


8.) General. 


what is the nature of Architectural Caumposition, what does it comprise, 
end where did it originate? fe recognize it as the result of knowledge 
and skill, drawn from experience and collccted from the realms of science 


and. ert.: But to find its origin, we: ‘enetrate more deeply.’ For 
_Q@ proper answer to theses questions, reiurn to primary ideas.,: 
To compose or design, one must first know what he would create. This 


3 

f= 

ne EO 
t= 
aad § 


~ 
ah 
ts 
C3 
ro} 


is to have en idea, snd this 3 idea or mental image of the object is brought 


out in full oleerness and represenistion by drawings.: Architectural de 
signing is therefore a clear representation of a ersative thought,: Seek= 
ung light and cleernsss, the mind searches for general haws of treatment, 
infers causes from effects, and reachos a Simple ground law, the basis 

of all, and which prevails in the realm of art, as in that of neture.: 
This is the eternal law of evolution, that primarily exists in creations 


- Of the organic world, which i organisn cslls into existence when con- 


‘ditions for its vitality exist, permitting it to grow and thrive, if each 
separate organ fulfils its function, when if assumes the form appropri- 
ate thereto!: Nature tekes care that this shape may be truthful and beau- 
tiful, if the organisn really ahaa ts life purposs.: 

Transferred to the domain of archi ra, ve have (art.2) deduced from 
this the ground law of architectural compositicn.: It starts from that 
triad of ideas; fulfil pur th of thought, and Leauty of 
form, the roots of the tree of theory; develop and blossom un- 
der the influence of t ; orces, experience, science and 
art. The path to creati indicated leads through the realm 
gi mental turing ek eats But we wust siili limit oursePves and make pro- 
winent the-chief points, whieh orchitestural design must keep in mind.- 

| Chapter 1.: Suitability ond Durabilit 

The requirements of civilized life increase the probiems.of architect- 
ure infinitely, since vrogressive development and improvement of exter- 
nal. and internel conditions of lifs preducs needa of sll kinds, which 
Canss sew urestions in architecture, always with the impress of time.- 
These needs of life ars subject to verpetual change and ere also the con- 
ditions of existence of pr building; civilisation is the fruitful field 
of its development,- but its germ lies in the ovrsose:- the impetus toward 


7° 


SS 


a5 TREE rN. geen MRS WO Rts 
fs bs mn i 4 ey . vA ‘ 
eons namie - Pe, 


i a, woviogneds efen fo Sthw.’ eudtoot dere. to edtow ot atone tins [is benubhh 
ee bas Istiesea Vlekise taum ow yeue Ison daon* a1. oatios rib amis nk nwo 
7 wbliud ets teds  8alnqnoo Sinenetimpes eeedd ob, dade ‘wiseaqing, ofseneae 


‘ Mirae ae sis: i i b&b ue becgetgeas sede af esogiyy ° tet tetsu CY 
ae a gedit odd dik gus (don gid ‘ko sinemotiogor eocge od? abkiaquen akit 
cae 4 ; . go? beJinosety angty tages. ead’ ‘ftebsan: Pen BmOT? old pe. eaotenoath Bre) 
ss “dhwe Yeu. inowegna tts poe aebad ‘ateds dant \osdqug aat yd ‘yt Dhund ang 
Cae Scponiaa pags cd ie bigoos Lieda éuwidounte opiiae wil tadd ban ,aoay. tawny 
Peles pdd, eoneultak is tdorg oi? Io -einemele eaedT. hobteg4it Yo ataod bem 
ae ie i ee bai gaons inst ati bas. gnoqiuy eel ‘ante tid od? to miss gia vokgedad 
ie ear | byte oat doliw of galbsooos .sxotos? es. eyiteled Pi Motde of anstieatp 
mons aot | bas gatblind edd to shuttagen edt bus .begelyvab ox al tzasane hae ana f 
Ratu ae: web eotwodil dike eeots ao benbineted. ote aeyaq wei to tolsieqeng ode 
nen 193 2! fede (fdiut yathliud odd 36 enone bre atqeq: bis ‘Rod fore betog . - 
ud * eat sensics sige iid eau sheft of galisoos,  venyevit’ | Liemwena 
da <f cee i ; wo aqQuety ove oaitd haber ‘od Yom yet) 
eyoleveb lenin 10 extn ctaannes sot baw eas ‘AoiMaD act diced ft 
mh me een ae ae ee wanennt bins: eyaphiing. de abbas fo tis 
2 a At: ipa ae el ee Bow athe. To: aoljosa feeo 
14 od to ecogusy ani ‘ae tluges dotdw ,seed istoeyas mot Snood ry 
an <idhssuad add oe a hetword id’ ine, ago doddw bow ands 
os septs) 


PP 


ae pent i  SeomsttoS ald od bas yathtiod: ars TO segesasg bie at0b 
pas saauet ¢liese ameto .toniseth ow wetied eas nodw yallad yiitoonda 
ae 901 B poleoqat bas dnasrogat ‘StoM oA} o9eess 4 Sedna Ao | tot bequests. 
ae oo ot ek eoedg eit bon ,aelg odd md nay afi Stentmory o102 oft jel wo 
Ll aa007 tne Proqms aeof ed? .1oivesxe odd oo bestewdqae bas bedsotbm: 
Louw Mudie ydinw bes ‘fgobro ef) x0$ agized ads n: ebsoer of evel 

x qin ned oad oe beiaaitiodye ‘40 beptiixoss ed Lib 

» bos | noi - AB aE jebtaaatsy wxol dae eeke 
ies bast ne Sa anotenebag 

nie Max one <a ie on 


ie yl sy he : iene 
es SRO aL pA ee 


ie 4 elas oes | ‘ doowqnloves Yo wat erannd avs. pr aendo Ht car se | 


als vat e187 onal yaa ¥t tent. one Gling tz0q" re00 RO YHtry otk tine. aah ait ¢ | 


Pea igi reine Se orang ia hiaants eda et ons naire te yd Lionne ‘bie: ustvonguut ‘ete i 
my ae Ne oe hn ad SER Ra Bt 
pee nal | Be heey Wp aide net: adaelien bugen to Iida tiie G 


o wile ee Pe or enanns rex a 20 et um otue bopauriie a & 


ut s 
ie Pah) hae ee Lee 


Paps ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN.. 
evolution comes from its innate law of development,: Brom this may be 
deduced all requirements for works of orchitecturs, which make themselves 
known in two directions.: In most problems, we must satisfy material and 
esthetic purposes,: What de these requirements comprise, that the build 
ang may suit its purpcse most perfectly, and that it may teke part in 
the improving and ennotling of life and in the welfare of man? 

&: Suitability.: 

Fulfilment of Requirements for Space,’ 

"he material purpose is férst expressed in suitability ef the work, 
This comprises the space requirements of the problem, that the number 
and dimensions cf the rooms may satisfy the conditions prescribed for 
the Luilding by its purpose, that their order and errangement may suit 
their uses, and that the entire structure shal] accord with the customs 
and taste of the period. These elements of the problem influence the 
Anterior organism of the building.: Its purpose and its rank among the 
ereations to which it belongs are factors, according to which its organ- 
ism end essentials are developed, and the magnitude of the building and 
the proportion of its parts are determined.: On these will likewise de- 
pend whether all parts and reoms of the building fulfil their purposes, 
naturally diverse.’ According to their uses, the apartments in a tuild- 
ing may be divided into two groups:-- 

1.: Rooms for common use and for passage, more or less developed in 
all olasses of buildings, end therefore treated in a genere] way in the 
oast Section of this volume.: 

2.: Rooms for special uses, which result trom the purpose of the tuild- 
ling, and which can only be treated in considering the different kinds of 
buildings. : 

The entire design must Le organically developed from within cutwards,: 
This will oceur and the tuilding be appropriate, when each portion of 
the building and seach room is in its proper place, when all convenicnoes 
are arranged suitably for use, in reference to each other, to the corri- 
dors and passages of the building, and to the entrances, vestitules and 
connecting balls, when the latter are distinet, clear, easily found, and 
arranged for convenient passege. The more important and imposing a room 
may te, the more prominent its place in the plan, and its place is te be 
indieated and emphusized on the exterior. The less important rooms will 
have to recede in the design for the order and unity of the whole, and 
will te sacrificed or subordinated to the more important and larger ones. : 
size and form primarily depend upon purpose, and secondly on esthetic con- 
siderations. 


ay 


«@ 


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SO bs. Ae Grae 7s ge ‘crrT % 

pet Ca oe oor mW ; : 
ax 


suites Nigel Smeiviices. atin 
agen bes ,floG .ott golbiing «or 
“moka itu lon. sono Wegetg & Letoesdnos al eeogieg to tnomlstivt dees 
doh ,aagitthaco tagol to nokiawbhenon 6 a6 [low ac .edic getbilud to 
" sed sodw Sts drogak Bi gt .gatbbind yoo edivs {ioe Yseve ion,edia yieve 
ed wor 8,10 s0%6 ego ms ak .yoliay ® ak 40 niesavon 8. © wbaste gntb lind 
 teerot ybeda eit atiro 8 ‘das thes of vebow eh of nedzedu .soordea 
Ti | Mesbedsas. ohited w- +6 6a lq ak eatooed: @iqned deeiD s blow todd -.mooly 
Wesel to ddenmudom @ 4b miglg ois ane ‘bese lg od xewot doolina na bilnode ysl 
 gbeviads deo aft etedw wang fea neok wleg edt Seoely ¢otisu odd no ynod 
aL. eavisdd dnaig's aa Aborted, edd gd ‘boosh wotlq edt ai 42% off? son 
or ae ppanieen ody gatveloer momtaers TegOTG tabu toga eidatow ine (Lome 8 
aa y hs th ~ta LLow 6 eoaks. oa ‘Sasagoloved edi ‘geitove t peotertamatin acr't (aTene 
Pick oh): o. soltsool ed? At ,etta aldsdioaau bas betimtt! « ao geibliod beyaey 
ce - | noksba00 Isoal vanes ie. vans ete eas Mo etlsen ait ,ctie edt to arot 
A Mee i oh ee “bom klien yiivt ew aviderg edd. te : 
.  aanib Lid s "to Kobe.teeb diel one a Letenoese ehlwodll ous ainiog eaeiT 
a . mb ae, wort. ewond: worpteab odd be. «tl lsatedxe duendinony ote OF Ls de d 
ns | Shtadaotos-ando, dtim dndw's to eobd oft aoonsulial gitdctrimes, dove, monk 
etek ag .gathlind eff to -aquasa 20 gootte erg. giisteuths ,toenisots 
r te ed, Yo. aredaen to auro> edd bas .ettq duembhib to enotenonth bas 


aa 


ef. " eh ome ‘ont?  ebtiw tiuseg Sti. baw ovis edi at etn) 
dF nes ays. ‘wv Lo’ ‘eo noe kod baa oad danispe (itor ttth ed inp 
1g yiquede.@ ' gated: gablene ead abernd oar! (ooh to hawergiond daak. 
pd eee ‘ede. bag: denubes {aimeoe eeundn edd lease seerct otis al tneata 
o% | akan. wos det ond dt andd ,msod at edooted sigile of ovitianes o1on 
+ it qeb bay ddgted ak- ate tite. ohame ev iioega reg aid, todd word welwedht 
tostdoa ile ave add. owe ‘(hiees yede gee tha esinret so ayadds gee ow Jedd. 
en be sional on guteseig ya bon klartues ‘od OF .Raattysoeh aie d130 OF 
| qowks dawkieee fd #3 bei snowonedy wears to noliavraedO 
2 to sinha’ ore baie duomant ter & of .abadieg Igqutoosiiond 3 zed end 
a. oe eats, = aos a end ‘te eantiaero edt al (chute déeinee No adda 
B, renee s ote ores ie etosesa deoteosy et dotiw awe. emsa edt yl 
advo ‘tieds ab bemtagoods. ewsit av doidw-bas ,beyokg 
bi 3  Bidomeniqoer gupiined £0 6 > 
wad om enidesi tion ii anotseerd 
N re ag 19: MOLIAN burg _ 


a i i el ice el 


18 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN, : 
10.: Building Site, S041, and Surroundings, : 

with fulfilment of purpose is connected a proper choice and utilisation 
of Luilding site, as well as a consideration of local conditions,: Not 
every site,nor every soil suits any building; it is importent whether a 
building stands o a mountain or in a valley, in an open area or a narrow 
street, whether it is under the radiant sunshine or in the shady forest 
gloom.: What would a Greek temple tecome in place of a Gothic cathedral? 
Why should an outlook tower be placed on the plain or a monument of vic- 
tory on the market place? The palm dees not grow where the oak thrives, 
nor the fir in the place graced ty the laurel! As a plant thrives in 
a small unfavorable spot under proper treatment, recieving the necessary 
energy from circumstances favoring its development, so rises a well ar- 
ranged building on a limited and unsuitable site, if the location and 
form of the site, the nature of the soil, and all other local conditions 
of the problem are fully utilized.: 

These points are likewise essential in the subdivision of a building, 
but also appear prominent externally, id the designer knows how to deduce 
from such restricting influences the idea of a work with characteristic 
treatment, adjusting the effect of masses of the building, proportions 
and dimensions of different parts,and the forms of members of the struc- 
ture, to the site and its peculiarities.: The same object will appear 
quite differently against the open horizon or clear shy, than before a 
dark background of deep green trees, the outline being more sharply pro- 
minent in the former case, the masses seeming reduced and the eye being 
more sensitive to slight defects in form, than in the latter case.: We 
likewise know that the perspective image differs in height and depth and 
that we see things otherwise than they really are, the eye being subject 
to certain deceptions, to be neutralized by pleasing treatment of forn.: 
Otservation of these phenomena led in the earliest times, especially in 
the best architectural periods, to a refinement and perfection of form, 
worthy of earnest study.: In the creations of the pre agtis time, we ap- 
ply the same laws, which the greatest masters of past art periods om 
ployed, and which we have recognized in their iad 

11., Sanitary Reguirenents,: 

Creations in architecture are intended for the uses of life and for 
the exelevation of mankind.: Their purpose requires that disturbing and 
injurious influences of climate and country, and ,that unf avoratle condi- 
tions at the locality be remedied and in future’ controlled.: These sani- 
tary requirements first comprise measured foy protecting the building 
from such influences.: These are expressed if design and arrangement of 


ae 


MOTEREOMOD J LACTOOTINORA a 


sort nobsoesonq tot anoltuaneng : wi Ona ,WOktenel asi ni .aatbiied edgy 
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aevleeiwe jot lode oi oF, ebay x0" ‘toute Bie dasa 30 igs onydenag moc? .f ato 
tot atnomegan are  ppatsen. end. datibsia Bou aes: eb Yat jiisind Te ats wost 


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a 0 met o£} oe pee eas: sey an Sr Le aaa r, é; ie ke : 
: w ‘ ? sm z Mirenhae tod es" i dud si a es 
ZERO Sy bite wee Se = die Sole Sart ee nc {2° pa’: 

mit seu ody et tit fay a's ont jay Lint s i “Seis ‘sss a an ue Oo ET ‘eau - 

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ts me Quix sy ry! ean MEANY Pee Ae "i 
‘Yo iets ed. bea iy ea yee te ie a ite Cy ote ai OEte se bis voauant 
ne * ne e | fs 3 


AGE . eRe ati Ba bd rae Mae Nees eS ei: Tih © x Lee : 
el Low “tstnpa bas feo tind eed guteiad! do idw ie _bdlatica “te BILeeg en 
49 oe ort a3 Oe 5 .. Selle il a | ; P ea 
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ik bide = re ORIG Ses 0 ecg Sa ne eS ose 
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bas ddget ‘Ya a6 b86 Fabs, ‘aes has i. yhaan G “dot aya rego ‘@¥ed sada Wootzis . 


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19.-  ”  AROHTTECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

the building, in its location, and in precautions for protection from 
heat of sumner and cold of winter, from sunshine and from derkness of 
night, from penetration of main and shock of wind.: te shelter ourselves 
fron the elements by defenses against the weather, by arrangements for 
quick removal of rain water from the building to prevent dampness, and 
from injurious evaporation, ty improving neglected grounds and prevent- 
ing future uncleanness.: 

These precautions against external influences are also in the most in- 
timate relation to the study of the building and the elements required 
for life, such as light and air, heat and water.; They comprise those 
innumerable details in the plans of the building required by safety of 
the health of mankind, and which inerease his physical and mental well- 
being.: They do not belong exclusively to sanitary science, but especial- 
ly to the problem of architecture.: They make themselves felt in the 
sketch for a building, for sanitary requirements are not alone express- 
ed in the-elevation and internal arrangement .d€ the house; they especial- 
ly appear in general design and construction,: If the entire orgenisn 
be unhealthy, the evil cannot be removed by internal and limited means. : 

It is therefore first necessary to see that the building is placed on 
a healthy site, is built of good durable and weatherproof materials, and 
that it be properly orientated and sheltered from prevailing winds.’ halls 
should te of such thickness, the reof so erranged and constructed, as to 
afford security against destructive effects of the elements.: Drainage 
of the building and protection from dampness are required, walls and par- 
titions must have openings for passage and free admission of light and 
air.: The roof is a protection from rain and sun and should have such 
inclination and projection, and openings in external walls should be so 
protected, thet rain water may be kept away from the building. In hot 
countries, one should be protected from dazzling light and scorching heat 
in lofty and airy rooms, sheded portions, in cold countries having rooms 
of less height, easily warmed, with olosely fitted and cold resisting 
construction. | 

12,: Requirement of Comfort.: 

These are primary requisitesfor a healthy building, and must appear 
in the plans. If to these te added provision for the well-being and con- 
venience of man, for the pleasure and enjoyment of life, emtodying the 
results of progressive science and teohnical skill, then is the material 
purpose of the problem completely fulfilled.’ Man's unremitting endeavor 
to improve his existence and for freedom from limiting external condit- 
ions is satisfied.,; In this is the nature of man's activity in civiliza- 


i ae, ; f q 
af 
Garr tM a 


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alte 


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eto sedantery 03,0006 falae. taotottive evet toum #4 dud ,madasyvo Lor 


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fi i ie ae | F ‘  sotgoutsaago bas Rs te gato iiwa -: 4 ae Wa . 


_pottuyen na abitadecnie 4d bootegepays #f Jaan. 2D Jieae Jats beliaies ne 


ae $e 


sae 


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en port oldewgeani erotsxady. etn adi licen bits utitidass 

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1 ad baditopertg 218. apd . aDendunes. yiieuen “e10ts gent em ebusicgsa 
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| gone trogst dyld to adtow acs saaedy ae dedi aesay | ero end doa o8 ‘Serws9) 
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-_ ——ity Oe a 


LU, ee  BRUHTTECTURAL COMECBITICN. 
tion,the aim of his endeavor and toil.: To this tian, xkkemust dochessene 
the building erected with regard and full knowledge thereof.: 
b.: vurabllity.: 
12, Duration of Building. 

Not only for the welfare ot man must hia work exhitit a sound structu- 
ral organism, but it must have sufficient resistance to guarantee secur- 
ity against destruction by natural accidents, ty time, and even by nan, 
This is necessary for the building to fulfil its purpese satisfactorily. 
It must often be devised to endure for generations, for centuries, even 
for thousands of years, transmitted as a legacy to future ages, and use- 
ful to them. This gives another law for the creations of architecture, 
that of durability. Lurability is also based an a requirement cf feeling; 
for, in opposition to the transitory nature of earthly existence, it a 
rouses a coneciousness of duration, approximates the hores innate in man- 
kind, a desire for the unchangeable and the eternal. 

14,‘ building Materials and Construction.: 

So detailed statement of what is understood Ly durability is required, : 
This demands intelligent examination and choice of materialsp both for 
endurance of weather, and resistance to accidental stresses. It consists 
in the proper nse of materials in construction, in the formation of struc- 
tural elements, and in the union of all parts of the structure in a pro- 
perly formed building, treated in accordance with statical laws.’ 4s an 
essential factor materials and construction must Le taken into consider- 
ation teforehand.: ) 

plore vagnitude, - 

Curability requires that magnitude for stability and resistance, which 
according to rules of science suffices for stresses, and in most cases 
surplus of strength to satisfy our instinctive feeling for security of 
the structure, against external influences and the effect cf internal forces, ° 
Stability and Durability are therefore inseparable from the idea of mag- 
nitude. The structure must not only te actually stable, but must appear 
so; we wish primarily to see it in condition to permanently resist all 
destructive influences, and uncoditionally durable, Greater strength and 
maguitude are therefore usually required, than are prescribed ty statical 
calculations, end are necessary, when structures for permanent use are con= 
cerned; so much the more essential, when these ar.« works of high importance 
and cost, creations of monumental architecture, which must possess these 
charecteri stics in a high degree, 

i¢,: Limensions of Booms. 
this innete teeling is justified by experience, but has also been trans- 


< | | weg ee 

are mq et 20 ewteniitog aft Bo volpet tet 8 ypoasy- negate 
ae “yea ‘eonebive elsitinte’ tem. 18 eB Snequnow asi an “Wn? ae BP eT heres: a 

aa wor ban ytidfeot gids ys beoreus tat otor anoitetene,. “song pitt m orlgt a 
eee ‘008 fewioestdow to ine@ae le re tons sidides cele yedT val poser yade * te 

Pax. “aenib: edi al doidw. sObud ingsm od. notte Lex etowzial sou" %. it ad.’ sclitege 

beat = cha sore 1990 sice. taew en -boiablanos ed ete ee, dodsw (ae007 to anole 

E ns aS ae _ taedroqas s30m edd 49, eanhalias. Reng ya osded ive. ener tinge aad dagh tye 


ae: hesetioety grois 
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oa : healt. of soidataa nd doiciw eiquet sleds ds, auinig @% ie bre dea: gnibiind 
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7 


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— 


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etwores4 isosiiey yine sxexe ase ysivesy ‘to: OY oid ot enl 

toi ite (4 28 wom AOw% ORT Laat ark yo eviinetie at signs 
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i pone feauzoes iio _dokesetque ewtt das Llu ag sdyuens doa ah ‘ng 1ouade 
fisme 245 o19laum guietogque. ibeyasdo e7en aseos!) wld, work bewouied ‘@lios 
tons 405 | twbdw oe aiioktentay Lootedaé has tehsie Le e1om ate enn lon, .te 
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i Moksiyib ive ad¢ eatereter asivay serdiot’ bi loa bre dots éd?. -.Yibotanger 
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has. yateoani ‘avin @teeqqs eouzingss to items loved!  ,béviova et eAhuots 
| daepoh edt to aynthlind ytdgde eds eoatrosoemdo has toes piivewogrevo 
ges en r Be Babes oan nied anubersg ssh Seoitiqose yea hiove ton bib odw 
i ade Bales i ipea tl als oo ieddieogaoo: lea Joel idows. 
ast yd \Liooogen, ieuanuahitent favpathea.to eaolise ro edt nl 
s 7! pence ten. Qoitidada tet yatioe? ed ,a0eld 
| yt vty i gakinncantt: aad haadeciiht hae 


Pate om 


21: | ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITICN. 

nitted by tradition,, & trief review of the architecture of the past will 
convines us of this, as its monuments are most infallible evidence.’ They 
show how km earlier generations were influenced ty this feeling and how 
they expressed it.: They also exhibit another element of architectural cou- 
position, in the woat intimate relation to magnitude, which is the dimen- 
sions of rooms, whioh may here ke considered. we must mske our conclusions 
evident by contrasting suitable typical kudlaings of the wost important 
eeriods, noting those monuments only characteristic in respect to the gues- 
tions discussed. : ; 

“s first mention the pyremids of Egypt, whose sutlime eftect depends 
almost solely upon their dimensions and magnitude, though partly on the 
building material, We glance at their temples, which in attidion to oth- 
er architectural elements, especially astonish ug ky the epparently etern- 
al duration of their great masses of building and by the simplicity of their 
construction and their majestic repose. 

How entirely different does the Greek temple appear! Saterial and mag- 
nitude are most effectively employed and we also recieve an impresssion 
of enduring strength; nothing unsafe or transitory is in the appearance 
of the skillful structure, enthroned above its surroundings in nolle re- 
cose,’ But the mass cf thie monument is even in its least details the con- 
sistent result of a structural principle, carried oui clearly and master- 
fully with full knowledge, the system cf horizontal ceilings, which accord~ 
ing to the law of gravity wan exert only vertical pressures. The Greek 
.paple is effective by its magnitude, much more so ky clearness end truth 
of the creative idea, and by the beauty and perfection of its form.: 

How different again ere the not less important masterpieces of Foman aref- 
itecture! The less perfect form is intended for pomp and show, and con- 
struction is not Lrought to full and true expression.’ architectural de- 
tails torrowed from the Greeks were chenged; supporting memlers are smail- 
er, columns are more slender, and intercoluminations are wider. but anoth- 
er system of constriction is cagatle of the highest development and appears 
repeatedly.: The arch and solid concrete vaults determine the suidivision 
end the magnitudes of masses of the tuilding; the structure in several 
storiss is evolved,: The element of magnitude appears with imposing and 
overpowering effect, and characterizes the mighty buildings of the Romans 
who did not avoid many sacrifices to produce this important element of 
architectural composition,. 

In the creations of mediseval architecture, especially in its highest 
bloom, the feeling for stability sand magnitude is expressed in a very di- 
fBerent way.: The feeling for magnitude did not really exist. The struct~ 


ae o ee ay ria titia') ig hae ei 
4; a o 


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bey AECHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

ure is concentrated in strong and richly-treated wall piers and buttress 
es, with dimensions in accordance with the system of vaults; tut with these 
are arranged thin enclosing walls and maximum area of window surface; over 
the splendid and spacious interior extends a vault, where arch rests upon 
arch, and rib upon rit to transmit the thrust to fixed roints of support.: 
Sut the entire system requires flying buttresses, arches, and structural 
parts to te stable; it is often highly ingenious and perfect in form, though 
not intended for eternal duration and immovable resistance, therefore has 
a somewhat disquieting effect, since mass is lacking.’ but the feeling 

for grandeur end longing for the infinite produces its mightiest and most 
ennobling effect in the loftiest monument for the worship of the Digty, 
the heaven-aspiring dome.’ This appears even larger and higher than it 
really is, ty stone masonry in thin coprses, by mysterious subdivision 
ef surfaces and masses of ‘the > building, and the skilful treatment of tne 
ornanent.: 

tie cone to the architecture of the Rendiwednde and modern period, which 

nay be treated together. : For the same path has keen pursued since the 
Reformation. kuch that is grand and notle has teen created, skillful science 

and high knowledge have Leen’ developed; tut these art periodshave produc- 
ed no really new system of cons truction, except iron and steel construc- 
tion of recent period, ba sed juore on material than on system,: Yet in this 
domain very important things ‘have Leen accomplished in most recent years., 
The Engineer, produced ty our ancient guilds, led the way in this direc- 
tion by taking the princigle of truth as his sole guide.: Yet his science 
is still too younz, and necessary time was not allowed him to devise beau- 
tiful forms for his works! and thereby create with a useful science a beau- 
tiful art. we are in the. midst of this movement and cannot anticipate it.: 
cut ea present tendency concerns us, one towards the most rational and e- 
conomical use of material and lator and minimum dimensions of the build- 
ing, resulting from foree of, circumstances,: We must take this into account, 
and cannot employ magnitudé and grandeur to the extent permitted to art- 
ists in earlier periods of/ art, and must free ourselves from this desire, 
tased only on tradition and not on nature of building material. tie shall 
derive benefit from past masterpieces, but must not exchange intellectual 
freshness and SA Aah 4 present requirements, for the sutlime and 
beautiful created in the ras! And if Architecture primorily consists 
of results of experience and tradition for thousand of years, Science has 
a valid claim to joint possession,: and must come to the aid of experience, 
and theory to bhe help of practice, Durability depends upon material, 
dimensions, and construction, and the general effect is in an intimate 


ie 


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sf to ue eidiaiv paeJietib al: gttites ae oe iE Ldeaub te- aiia st 
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* 

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“ct ” BESS 
che 

S70 Fe 


é ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, | | | 
Both must suit the purpose and importance of the build- 


vil 


ec. 
relation to it. 
composition puts these elements asthgadiyier USES; 
acterize representations of Lhe building, both of interior an ee 

an essential sign of duvretility or stability is direct and visitls support, 
of all parts of the tuilding ty firm and resisting masses, avoiding ail 
suspended portions of the structure, arranging supports beneath supports 


they char- 


and openings akove openings. How far our instinct to make supporting perts 


stronger and more massive than there supported, and lower openings smaller 
than upper ones may take this into account, must te left to other sectione 
of this work.: but it is certain disquiet oppresses us, when piers stand 
over openings, and heavy masses of walls load slender iron columns,: These 
erg enduratle if the supporting system is clearly indicated and well de- 
fined, if the slender iron construction is inserted in the massive stone 
structure and srranged independently of stone forms. Late architecture 
thus produced very satisfactory works. : 

Under all circumstances, the use of a clear system of construction is 
essential. The simplest structures ere naturally the most durable and 


pleasing even in our ere, which has progressed co far in technical natters, 


bold constructions require at certain points stronger supporting masses, 
even if they do not produce a feeling of insecurity. To effectively en 
body ® syeter of construction opens a wide field of eativity to architect- 
ural treation. This is in subdivision of masses, fixing dimensions accord- 
ing to statical laws for transnission of forces to walls and piers, as 

well as with a uniform distribution of pressure on foundations, 

Parts exposed to external injuries must have greater dimensions than 
frotested portions. according to purposs and importance of building, 
dimensions are to be limited to the minimum, or correspondingly increased. 
Strict utilitarian buildings and those for merely tesporery purposes, 
are madé as simple or as light as possible, and those intended for long= 
er duration are to te strong and more durable.: liase and size are indis~ 
peneslle to monumentel buildings, even if they do not alone suffice to 
make the structure an ert work. They are expressed in details as well as 
in general, If the building is to heve both a material and an ideal pur- 
pose, and is to be very durable, it should not be reduced to man and the 
brief life alloted to hin, Its parts and the entire structure must te 
arranged on a larger scale, ; 

‘Building material is to be selected accordingly, not only with reference 
to its resiatance, but also for its massiveness, depending on its nature 
and origin. tiood is more exposed to rapid destruction, especially by fire, 
‘and must be considered a more perishable material than stone,’ Iron is 


Mat bar s eth sith ies 
ia shpea bis. minoid moe 
cam b rao ‘auke bit: seoping ati new?’ bes rhe 
bra yee cinch beard - ta dae log | 


‘ Pt mde Mods ne. ‘hiseqgs deat ahi Jatsa “i wiai 

‘a e ofa at Ylesenye: tatu +. soa of eek ets Yo tatom 

i a ip bite YaAotonon boot ban ae pe oy | duay ee ‘oad Idea 
Bouin (> seaenditnn bee .eone loost at Otten? sab bie Vari Oe serena 
(eave vRwabeix ayhasts ot gtive?t ben: auvone wroterod i | Iti Ha oa sake swod eau ek ot 

ee Aor duc-e7eiy ,xoisetxe ett no yidommye bas nebse havens Sige lm a “nage nreadly ber 
ee: a gittiion at be: silen-gout seaseidivd teeLorny. ad xGite tad ad? aa. otal te. 

sine aes i wddiw to: ‘pakdion, dtoyqua ow eaten lig. fos eagnlon eo bee’ at ss ad 
ens ene [iskiaeese bas luttinaed hetiewtes ened wen geod? teY ger ee fait 

yer o + dedé adil [iad sto: ebsos't ad duets of on let bas, a7 spatubby ytd geal Of at. et a 
aie <a ewobnin to aver beroves a bw. @etuote ont dt ob ividiva oo (ast {Lomb + a 
ry 4) ) Outte Is ide Log. bas1g s to eonsteogge ed} egauod : Tisae 46 Soold A avy ‘3 ae 


caakaae woidiasog os fog ae wetzosa. eank note ieth beerqos ot 4o au a 
Ey | seedrose issevea Aguas bretue ot atédaelig 20 eamyion’ eda > 
| a Asin ‘Yo goskd %,. ie. geeRsi edd: hs content meets. cape 2% aoc arthy cul 


plows: penene ie: bre Bes tau nh ob a | 


b4,: ARGHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
subject to rust, and we do not yet know its durability. Monoliths and 
ashlars of great size make an impression of resistance and eternal dura- 
“tion.: Smaller stones cause parts composed of them to appear larger than 
in reality.: In determining proportionate dimensions, the actual dimension 
is not to be confounded with the apparent size, produced ty architectur- 
al members, subdivision and result of art.: 

Chapter 2,: Truth and Order.: 

The preceding treats all requirements of the building to be directly 
deduced from its purpose, and thus connected with practical aims of life, ° 
but problems of architecture also comprise ideal aims, and these have been 
touched upon, since both are connected. The law of durakility favors the 
transition; by the construction it belongs to the realm of science, and 
so far as based on instinct for magnitude and size, to the domain of art 
ales. 

a. Pun. 

The entire province of knowledge and science is dominated by the idea 
of truth.: For architecture requires truth in the fulfilment of purpose 
and truth in the expression of the construction,’ Both must te character- 
ized in the shape, form and even in the least details of the structure: 
This means that truth must not be concealed, but must everywhere appear. 

17,: Sincerity in Fulfilment of Purpose,: ) | 

This consists in the arrangement of the buiniding and in the combination 
of its parts into an appropriate organism, and also in the characteristic 
form by which its importance is expressed,’ For truth appears in the char- 
acter of the work; true originality depends thereon.: Unfortunately in 
architecture, truth is usually under constraint, and both monotony and 
elaboration frequently manifest insincerity, indolence, and unfitness. 
It. is without purpose and therefore untrue and faulty to arrange windows 
and doorway::: in misplaced order and symmetry on the exterior, where out 
of place in the interior, to project buttresses from walls with nothing 
to support, to employ columns and pilasters to support nothing or with- 
out meaning. Yet these are by many esteemed beautiful and essential! It 
is no less injudicious and false to treat the facade of a hall like that 
of a dwelling, to subdivide it into stories with several rows of windows, 
to give a block of small houses the appearance of a grand palatial struc- 
_ture, or to suppress division into stories as much as possible, permit- 
ting columns or pilasters to extend through several stories,. 

This does not condemn clear grouping of the masses in a block of build- 
ings, where series of small residences recieve united and effectual arch- 
itectural treatment, each single house making itself evident, tut blames 


¥ 


co) aes 
Siniot 


pebsore bins aedok 08 


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2 “ae ’ 
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fn pi 
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| 
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fs ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, - 
poveriy or invention and monotony in architecture, long Lare facades, where 
feeling is absorbed by visible alsence of thought.: Free scope is af ford- 
ed to the imagination, so far as it does not degenerate in the grouping 
and sukdivislon, especially in extensive buildings.’ Thus in a mercantile 
building, where pomp and show are appropriate, it is entirely proper to 
combine two steries externally, internally connected as Lusiness offices, 
to secure larger windows for objects for exhibition, thereby serving the 
“purpess of the wuilding, at the same time expressing its intention, | 

we must adhere to this in architectural creations, and will attain this 
if we devote ourselves to truth and not to appearance, if we state that 
the window serves for light and the door for passagep not for appearance, 
cnice is a protection from rain, and is not a decoration for 


co 
ing of the interior, that the columns are supporting parts of the 
an 


cal 


structure; 


a 


i not merely ornamental like a decorative frieze; in brief, 
if we see that each part must fulfil a definite purpose and recieve an 
appropriate form. We shall succeed if we arrange rooms in accordance with 
their purposes and importance, group less important ones, accent the chief 
apartments by projections, by greater height and by more noble forms, ‘he 
great should not be minimized, and the small should not be made to appear 
great; unity must not ke divided, and separate parts should not tbe unit- 
ed benesth a single roof.: By such tokens is truth recognized in fulfil- 
ment of purpose.: How is it expressed in cohstruction? 
1%.: Truth in Construction. : 
A characteristic of truth is that by the most diverse paths the same 
end is attained, If the same principle hppears in the different methods 
of construction in architecture in precedifg ages for giving form to its 
ideas, we recognize in it the principle of trndh. : wo find in the test 
periods of architecture that the construction is “expressed in its master- 
plecsssieces equally with their purpose,’ If we sometimes meet with styles 
or structures where form is not in harmony with the construction, it is 
: pint tile “srue-from the false. te shall not take stone im- 
tabions of wooden struotures in Asia Minor as nodels, “tut. we must regard 
wise and sat aka use of the material used and the syaten Bs Rebate 
he exosllent systems of construction in Grecian, Roman, and 


n Grecian architecture with its horizontal ceiling of stone teams, éohe. 
structed of lurge blocks and slabs, statics assumes its simplest form in 
the law of gravity; rigid wonerete vaults in Roman Architecture like in- 
verted monoliths, exert no thrust; a we find in Gothic architecture gen- 
erally a structure of ribbed vaults, transverse @eches and eroades, con 


re 


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pelo suo Phy tt od teva tose! edt ees boatves gaied eqede 


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“ _ tf | me waleiueded at diut? Or 
by sabe or “8 ga to beecd wi sovays Istutoutsa od? sua 
amkb & atwrereb of wed son mont so boaw enose ai Lind oF wod 
38: ¢ teroden ak Meogge daua nokvovtsanos al dsetl- amet teers 
948 tatweten dose gtivead at etsignos doidw ,aleinetoa yrtbliod 
faarot hache oredw: yeaotiqeoeb efliweq (fe-dsiw yowk <.2l ylleot ti 
sass 6° els tieten ylteor sedto bus ,eidisa \ isdem to _boow at bedesiad 
| 8 aad igdindow cYteqgist bne aeltizt cele? Avia ‘Wageg bas sogeq yd be 
fs fer ih oh dd ai istreten edotisadwe 6 to oav Isiolset got ‘leutine efole eds 
neeracn io a cua od A wl iaeatagts bow itt ese! aude ‘Rove gonte ,bebwlo | 
Ab sik . hanes he “sew O28 
Ae ike th 0 ee Wa Ae rR cute Saatdaeaeipel OB 
UB as ener lek oak Ee od yom, (etat ales , ots at dwt 
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guoded fon Jaum dieu? -dals twidosivors iri owsy ai oixT 


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oe aRCHITBCTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

posed of small cut stones, where all individual stresses are equilibrated 
and individualized in the various parts of the construction, from which 
no single piece may be taken without injury.. whenever stone is used, joints 
and tonds are to be elearly shown, and where wood or iron is the material 
joints, connections, and system must be apparent. Just this maxes the 
simple and peculiar wooden construction of mountainous regions so effect- 
ive and so satisfactory. It is the same with much of our iron construc- 
tion, satisfactory at the first glance in spite of its lightness; truth 
being expressed in the construction. Falsehood is a vice in mankind and 
a vice in art also,. 

we meet the same principle of truth everywhere, though methods differ 
with results to be obtained, means at our disposal,and obstacles to be 
surmounted.’ It also happens that in retaining this elementary principle, 
methods must be chosen according to circumstances, and these lead to re- 
sults externally quite diverse, It is first 60 be understood, form and 
shape being devised later.: The latter must be brought out clearly and 
truly, with an easily understood system of construction , which conceals 
or deforms nothing, Lut appears openly with dignity, lending to the struc- 
ture life and importance, while treating the different parts in accord- 
ance with their functions. 

19.: Truth in Materials, | 

But the structural system is based on the materials.’ tie do not describe 
how to build in stone, wood, or iron, nor how to determine dimensions and 
treat forms,’ Truth in construction must appear in a natural use of the 
building materials, which consists in having each material appear what 
it really is.: Away with all peurile deceptions, where stone forms are 
imitated in wood, or metal, marble, and other costly materials ere replac- 
ed by paper and paint! with false trifles and frippery, meaningless and 
therefore untrue! Yet rational use of a substitute material is not ex- 
cluded, since even this by skill and treatment may be used in an appropri- 
ate way.’ 

£0.. Degeneration... 

Truth in art, as in life, may be carried too far.: Great candor and sin- 
cerity frequently cause offence and are less appropriate than reticence, : 
This is true in architecture also.’ Truth must not become op ressive or 
degenerate into rudeness and lead to exaggeration, ,pposed to the feeling 
for beauty.: 

De Urder,. 

ihe supreme general law in nature is order, and this is true in art and 

science,. I Research ctherwise loses its starting point and the imagina- 


oF ideas bas. pebonnaee ow Ytuned bas dtuxd serebliwod 4) hots 
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b zeb10_ abaatntewians: 10 - fsobntonmyn ef xem gakolind eds Yo ma ly eT 
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“6. To 


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‘ on exige babel peered ak-dads - Ssinintn hee isaiedas eid al toa 
Ge yom od beiig 
b. ip sandetiud ons i beauaes jee ed. tedgid ad? (erototedt 
a “ph ett 26 ytitelinie-to .Yrteonys baw sedi etivpes aw 
“si evi to. “aeons danuozls emoa Iabny bis ixe Iaido @ se 
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wdateiider toodsiw bequoiy Yleort yeaoysig bas molveoo! of gad 


a > hatha ath edd edil gaiblint » 20 Holss04 doe ogners Ylisoltt, 
i teen hentia bah oe in Festi oa _ vt bq * te seneit edd 40 enots 6 to ie 
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very 


SECHITECTURAL CCKPOSITICN. 
on is bev idered; truth and beauty are connected, end harmony is tased 
upon it. It is therefore indispensable in art and Lelongs to the laws 
of rai arti invention, 
21. Symmetry and Balance. 

fhe plan oh the building may ce symmetrical or unsymetrical; order coes 
not ee bee bsolute similarity, but balance of masses cf the building 
and of its wemters about a central point, or an axis through the centre 
of gravity of the design.: Not strict mathematical symmetry but Lalence 
1 Le adopted as a guide in architectural composition. ne do not un- 
dervalue symmetry or throw it aside; rightly understood, it is even more 

ssential to order in ert than in nature. Just as this never attains ab- 
ee swey over forms in nature, in the inorganic or orgenic world, we. 
way not subject to it the creations of art without limitation. A ¢rystal, 
leaf, flower, or fruit, exhibits two approximately symmetrical halves, 
wut this is not true of the rock, twig, or tres, Even in more highly de- 
veloped objects, especially in man, the completest work in nature, we find 
symmetry in the externel form with reference to the axis of the head, but 
not in the internal orgenism.: What is observed in nature may also Le ap- 
plied to art.: . 

Therefore, the higher the rank assumed by the building, the more may 
we require order and symmetry, or similarity of its parts about a center, 
or a chief axis, and under some circumstances, of its side elevations L_ 
about a transverse axis.’ The organism may show variations, especially 
in the interior; important portions of the entire structure, like the hu- 
man body, way be symmetrically arranged without requiring perfect similar- 
ity, According to the importance of the building, location will be so 
chosen that its arrangement may not be restricted on either side. It is 

for buildings of lower rank, usually limited to a fixed site,: 

ee utilitarian purposes and those for the material requirements 
ife must te adapted in treatment to local conditions, like creations 
un the inher and vegetatle kingdoas, and symmetry is usually sacrificed 
to suitability and truth,: The same cccurs in buildings erected only on 
particular sites, to be harmonized with tneir surroundings.: The differ- 
ent parts are then naturally arranged with reference to each other, accord- 
ing to location and purpose, freely grouped without restreint, or within 
a given space as if crystallized about a centre.: One then seeks to symme- 
tricsily arrange each portion of a Luilding like the separate crystals 
of a stone or the flowers of a plant, only sc far as its purpose therely 
suffers no injury.: 

The like occurs in the masterpieces of architecture... Very frequently 


7 ee 


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4 ' ¥ - i 


fnea0 nl a6 evddedys bajae sda hen aotsrose: att of 
“bas beqvorg irs Vie "auiscebnaves gthsod af elidw orntoos ita 
-blivd Leymonunoe edd vino eaveced od yam tank? dT _.xto00 anaicer +«! 
_ Aon st saome aoa ‘oan 42 tne bevieseng ete wileet® eis ‘Io ee 
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oobi j fwtisowed: a cetencnadtigs's eredsdowyy. ofd mh Bu of bord te 
is Bhtacine 6 fine ofque? eldvob 8° ,euwtowiie eighst. os. Yor gehdetencs pnd: 
foreney of ot #6 ehxe He Iwods hoyasri ylisolatommys al dmg ris sec 
radtn baquorg ets ‘get eholthade fool die @onsivieoos ni bie mylesb 
bePirecdese odd dviw betueeke ois bos weanoupaotsintg bas wobsert papa 
4s ted bani? ew ,tnomedede dadoee 64?'Hd oommrvetot al -.gnéies?t oliety 
ie ‘at ' isxbedteo ‘bhiged eat «Wtesoo titers faves thon to taemixon [s sagnge a4 
mort. ‘tude gab a fitw aixe leaites ¢ feods hearers qileolitveaaye viles 
F abel esxonns to notes tao, wi ive aftadah af yxtewaye elenitivel 
a ea aed * VIBHA BIS! dod esedu jebie eno no- 
aay; eb, jue nk yitomayg ‘Biges wheat ot fede fmol lod ttoeid? aovt. 
gavel deeigacead Yi tagupott bivew 32 29 tide’ ead bivow ,aghéb lind 
y fneweitib dviw agatbidud ai eee eds ‘@t add? ‘.dduad baw ysilide 
nag ‘ddan at yeonaaragn: bas esogusg atedt ot. gntbron0n iti 
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be yenedcgta edd, Vo boots in etow molew lagieadxy edd eavod 
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‘ybodas i ulinoissomays bere igied cone Lad dose ae Bat 


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vmbak } po dbawoget nedd anebteace 2 ie s enokieiba rave daue.yd beetaque aged 
ts FS bedsranod yliaasasue seoelg (aed: We bowed yliewion exe again: a6 i 
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ono ed tem bivorla eno ,amose aiid notin dedt. iMeaser sJinited 6 
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bi ‘dose .eidieroq us wel o8 iewobhiw bas ered betid exil eeisib 
| been kerveney edd tedtedi \[soiaeanya od binade patbitud eds to freq 
, “aptepyti “jleswees ed geeno [ls nt tavm aidd ded. sae lvgotti 10. se luger of 
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09 lake id re  sepethLin bas wield oie 
reba inautootiiess «. 
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28. : ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN, : 
is the assertion made, that rigid symmetry rules in Grecian and Roman ar- 
chitecture, while in Gothic architecture only freely grouped and irregu- 
lar designs occurr,: The first may Le because only the monumental build- 
ings of the Greeks are preserved, and the symmetrical arrangement is nob- 
bler and more suitable for these as already explained. Yet Greece trans- 
mitted to us in the Erechtheum a very characteristic and beautiful build- 
ing, consisting of a triple structure, a double temple and a caryatid porch, 
neither part is symmetrically arranged atout an axis, but in the general 
design and in accordance with local conditions, they are grouped with the 
utmost freedom and picturesqueness and are executed with the most refined 
artistic feeling.: In reference to the second statement, we find that the 
principal monument of mediaeval architecture, the Gothic cathedral, is us- 
ually symmetrically arranged atout a central axis with a departure from 
legitimate symmetry in details only, in ommission of annexes, towers, etc.; 
on one side, where not necessary.: 
From this it follows that to require rigifi symmetry in many designs for 
buildings, would be a fault,as it would frequently transgress laws of suit- 
ability and truth.: This is the case in buildings with different parts vary- 
ing according to their purpose and importance, in length and breadth, and 
in number and height of stories.: How, if at a nobleman's seat or country 
house the principal salon were balanced by the kitchens, the conservatory 
was like the stables, and the chapels was similar to the chambers and liv- 
ing rooms, each of equal height and symmetrically treated, so that their 
uses could not Le externally distinguished? This would be monstrous; not 
“Only monotonous in the extreme, but deceptive and false, whether intended 
to ennoble the building or reduce everything to a lower level.; One is per- 
haps suprised ty such contradictions and considers them impossible; simi- 
lar things are actually found in nany ‘prsoes externally decorated by the 
orders, and are almost invariably regarded as proper and beautiful! 
From these examples, easily increased in number, three things are evident: 
that especially in monumental buildings, symmetry may be omitted only for 
a definite reason; that when this occurs, one should not be discouraged 
thereby but should never for the sake of symmetry have recourse to absur- 
dities like Llind doors and windows; so far as possible, each separate 
part of the building should te symmetrical, whether the general arrangement 
be regular or irregular... But this must in all cases be natural; neither 
regularity not irregularity may be artificial or cumpalsory, or degenerate 
into disorder and wildness, 
22.: architectural Orders. 
This means order in architecture, with which must not be confounded the 


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BP,” AECKITSOTURAL COMPOSITION. 
Arehitectural Crders,: They were originally evolved in an organic way; from 
the Grecian temple the Crder cannot te removed from the Greek temple, for 
its Order is its style, dust as little as may one of its memters te omitted, af 
for an insect or a flower, without destorying it; in toth cases esan part 
fulfils a functior assigned to it in the general organism end exhitits 2 
torn adected thereto. but there is something else in the Crdsr on a Roman 
luilding; it is merely decorative and ney Le removed and transterred at 
pleasure or be replaced ty something cifferent, as the construction of the 
iuilding is not thereby chenged. Since the revival cf antique architect— 
aure has se proceeded, that without strict purism one may justiy say that 
order hes ty the Crders tecoms disorder, that these serve as falsities.: 
They are only justifiable when columns or piliars have a atatical function 
or at least so Gertein importorce, ard their existence is h based uron the 
arrangement of the interior. 

bts Una ty 

In architectural design, order is shown in the arrengewent of the tuild- 
ing.’ he grceeeed from the inmest nucleus, from the heart ci the plan, to 
develor the internal crgenisi and to clothe the skeieton of the structure, 
to connect ihe rartse, sccenting the chief portions and meking them pron- 
inent ty form, sukdivision and oruawernt.. This method leads to the united 
organiss and to unity in architecture.: For in this way is made apparent 
the relation ¢f architectural members, which separately possess no inport- 
ance, and the unity of all parts, that cne may not have a loose ccilection 
of accidentally joined parts, but an indivisatle whde. Unity is teased 
on order, but unity and herwony rule the resir of the teautiful, that in- 
nernost domain of art. 

Charter &.° Eeauty and Crnament.: 

The idea of oe is the highest law of erchitectural conposition. In 
whet directions rust creation proceed te produce Leauty? That belongs to 
each part, that the work of the architect moy te beautiful? To answer these 
gugstvions and fix ths conception of teauty, we aust sein compare phenome— 
na in noture to phenorena Li art.” 


Pe 


a Concepticn of Beauty.: 

The idea in common life, when we spesk of the beauty of a thing, varies 
secording to the rank the otjest occupies in creation. we may indeed tern 
ony object crested ty nature teautiful in its way, sinee it is externally 
corfect; yet we gustly Baie products cf the inerganie and organic world 
Leautiful, sinee they are distinguished above others of their kind, and 
the more fully one cf these is ondowod by nature, the higher is it placed, 


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ae ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION, : 

and the greater are our requirements. Thus the erystal by its simple and 
regular form, by color, lustre, and behavior toward light, and the flow- 

er Ly its form, by the magnificence and blending of color tones, by its 
fragrance, and even by its organic life, produce animated and pleasant im— 
pressions.’ If we take the higher forms of nature, or the highest product 
of creation for comparison, we find perfect beauty in mankind, not only 
the highest example of completeness in external appearance, but the impress 
“of his spirit, the expression of his spiritual peculiarities, and akove 
all, we find character.: A head possessing character will always prove teau- 
/ tiful; but a fine head is not always evidence of a noble character. Poss- 


“ essing the latter, one will be guided by ideas of morality and truth in 


all situations in life, and both are combined in the idea of beauty. 
| 25.: architectural Style.: 

as with phenomena in life, so with phenomena in art; but as character 
is to man's life, so is style to the domain of art. Style is just as es- 
sential to beauty in art, as character to beauty in life. For style is 
the imprint of art processes by which creation takes form in accordance 
with the nature of the material treated and with the ideas of the time; or, 
as expressed in Semper's words; " Style is the harmonizing of art phenome- 
na with the history cf its origin, and with all the requirements and the 
circumstances of its existence". 


Let us hear the same master in regard to the origin of architectural styles: 


"The ancient monuments are rightly designated as fossil shells of vanish- 
ed social organisms; but they did not grow on the tacks of these while they 
existed; nor did they shoot forth in the hidden processes of nature like 
coral reefs, but they are constrained works of man, who has employed on 
them his inderstanding, ctservation of nature, genius, will, desires, and 
vowers,’ The free will of the creative spirit of mankind therefore, enters 
as the most important factor into the guestion of the origin of architect- 
ural style, and this must indeed in his creations move within certain high- 
er laws of traditicn, of requirements, and of necessity, but it adopts this 
by its fine perception and realization and makes it useful.. wherever ate 
new idea of civilization took root and was accepted aS such in the gener- 
al consciousness, this found architecture at its service to determine its 
monumental expression. Its mighty civilizing influence is always recog-— ‘ 
nized, and its works were with assured purpose impressed with that ‘stamp, 


which elevated them as symbols of the prévailing religious, social and por, 


litical systems. Not from the architects, but rather from great regener- ‘. 
ators of society proceeded this new impulse, when the right hour had sound- 
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a ARCHITECTUKAL COMPOSITION. : 

A new architectural style is only produced Ly a new view of the world, 
the gift of a new epoch of civilization, whose world-moving idea may ev- 
en Le nature.’ Since we are on the ground created by the aqquisitions of. 
the Renaissance, we enter completely into the inheritance of that great | 
period, when we truly make it our own, both in science as well as art, 
by developing it in accordance with requirements and conditions of modern 
civilized life. From this will the true and beautiful architectural style 
of our time be derived.: It also follows that all our thought must te di- 
rected tc spontaneous architectural creation, and all cur abilities te ex- 
erted, to contritute our own work for this high purpose. The power of the 
architectural profession does not suffice, while the energy and will of 
individuals are lacking. but scattered labor is most injurious, and it 
is a delusion to believe that decoration ty the old can equal the inven— 
tion of new ideas, or that periods without styles may be revived.: 

Architectural style requires a clear system of construction by our state- 
ments and all traditions.: Yet this does not itself form a style although 
an important element.’ The seme structural principle may be developed in 
different directions and form the bases of different styles.: The present 
dcés not need to await an epoch-making invention of a new system of cons- 
truction, as if creation of a new style were dependent thereon. Other in- 
pulses are explained in Semper's words and actually produce it.’ Like oth- 
er elements of architecture, style depends on the building material. One 
may properly speak of a wooden style, a brick style, an iron style, etc., 
teceuse in each of these the respective building material is indicated, since 
the style assumes a special character in accordance with it.: 

2é.: Building Material. 

The building material is itself an effective element of teauty by the 
characteristics of its external appearance. Granite and syenite, by inde 
structibility of their nature, color and polish, cannot be replaced in mon- 
umental architecture by other materials, any more than marble, with the del- — 
-icacy of its tones, its veining and its texture.- Sandstone is distinguish- 
ed by its dull tone, appropriate for external architecture; clay is not- 
able for plasticity and suitability for all purposes, in plain bricks in 
masonry and in terra cotta and majolica for relief and color decoration.: 
wood has an excellent effect as internal finish by diversity of grain and 
color, Ly 1%t8 capacity for polish, and ty suitatility for carving. Iron 
assumes in the mould and under the hammer the most varied artistic forms; 
bronge takes the highest development in form under the tool of the chaser, 
one not obtained in any other material, and acquires a beautiful patina, 
suprising in antique bronzes, Finally should be mentioned stucco as and 


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arty.. 7 ARCHITECTURAL CCMPOSITICN. 
te beautiful and may appear ugly in connection with another, the converse 
ieing also true.: It is quite the same as in music.: One tone is in itself 
no more beautiful then any other; its full effect only appears when joined 
with others in chords,”*melodies and musical works. -Rhythm and harmony are 
also required in architecture; as in musical or color tones, a form is on- 
ly effective by combination or contrast with others. . The use of successive 
novel forms has a disquieting and bewildering effect, while repetition of 
similar motives in rhythmical sequence is quiet and animating; though if 
these too frequently occur, they become exhausting and monotonous, 

2£8,: Subdivision.: , | 

This is true of formal treatment in general and in detail, the subdivis- 
ion of the form, ty which its beauty is increased or diminished. | sutdivi~ 
sion must Le arranged in accordance with the character of the tuilding; sim- 
ple or rich, graceful or severe, grave or gay, according to the purpose of 
the structure and to other circumstances.: To heighten the effect, the ani- 
mated and subdivided portions must be relieved by plain and undivided sur- if 
faces, a certain accenting must be employed with a certain rhythm of lines, 
that the correct relation between masses and openings may be retained. Ker- 
sony is again required; it is the feeling of solidity, durability, and or- 
der that fixes the requirements to which due attention must be paid in sub- 
division.: 

The treatment of the members in detail will thus Le sulordinated to the 
ceneral subdivision, and is to be adjusted in accordance with the charac- 
ter of the Luilding.: This extends to the forms of structural parts of the 
constructive organism, and makes apparent the structural importance of the 
parts of the tuilding.: we cannot here neglect characteristic art forms de- 
termined by the architectural style.: The necessity for resisting the same 
external influences and the same internal forces, and the requirement of 
making this conflict apparent to the eye, has produced similar lines and 
forms in the most diverse periods and localities.. As we make known our thoughts 
Ly tones and words, so do we i architecture express our designs in lines 
and forms.: we therefore take these forms from those originated by innate 
feelings of mankind, that-they may be apparent and te understood in the sim- 
clest and most natural way.: , we can also consider,with slight exceptions, 
that these are just as much fixed as are forms based on the laws of nature.’ 

30.: Mouldings and Profiles.: 

Such forms are souldings and such lines are profiles.: They are partly 
composed of geometrical lines and are partly free hand. We do not desig— 
nate these architectural members according to their functions.: They may 
represent transmission of a load, a free termination, or union or separa- 


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ay a. soistegory i Sts {ote jaobe tseu fed 2700 swotofw sonte 
3 a 10% bebaosat sodvadw Ot gaibsooss belay ylao goied eaétaceulh 
pf 20 bebresai Sac saat “songtd nee, sa00, s adau sautse Ix? 
G ih Saat EL eae Bee er \ 2008 tog Vaan 7o 
ee to ent, + OP edt sis tae o2 avosnorse ‘ae, Jou, ei #2 
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odin speetecn sind list owil eeaogie4 tea dbrovstxe 16% bebrostne 
ith Livd .oid . faetie Le1esey bas slege odd ab od eligi 
ne pesos ak aleoe ett regis edd, elisa thegus (liv 32 qo% 
2 get Py fasiigas eid? adem of Re ty Has’ \enoiaieath suk 
98 % ouol: te, br Wes fo. ® “Hoshi” eid diiu ferhs | 
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a ) ARCHITECTURAL CCMPOSITICN., : 
te beautiful and may appear ugly in connection with another, the converse 
teing also true.: It is quite the same as in music.’ One tone is in itself 
no more beautiful then any other; its full effect only appears when joined 
with others in chords, “melodies and musical works. Rhythm and harmony are 
also reguired in architecture; as in musical or color tones, a form is on 
ly effective by combination or contrast with others. The use of successive 
novel forms has a disquieting and bewildering effect, while repetition of 
similar motives in rhythmical sequence is quiet and animating; though if 
these too frequently occur, they become exhausting and monotonous. 

£8,: Subdivision... 

This is true of formal treatment in general and in detail, the sukdivis- 
ion of the form, ty which its beauty is increased or diminished. Subdivi- 
sion must Le arranged in accordance with the character of the tuilding; sin 
ple or rich, graceful or severe, grave or gay, according to the purpose of 
the structure and to other circumstances.: To heighten the effect, the ani- 
mated and subdivided portions must te relieved by plain and undivided sur- / 
faces, a certain accenting must be employed with a certain rhfthm of lines, 4 
that the correct relation tetween masses and openings may be retained. Har- 
nony is again required; it is the feeling of solidity, durability, and or- 
der that fixes the requirements to which due attention must be paid in sub- 
division,: 

The treatment of the members in detail will thus ke sut:ordinated to the 
general subdivision, and is to be adjusted in accordance with the charac- 
ter of the Luilding.: This extends to the forms of structural carts of the 
constructive organism, and makes apparent the structural importance of the 
parts of the tuilding.: we cannot here neglect characteristic art forms de— 
termined ty the architectural style.: The necessity for resisting the same 
external influences and the same internal forces, and the reguirement of 
making this conflict apparent to the eye, has produced similar lines and 
forms in the most diverse periods and localities. As we make known our thoughts 
Ly tones and words, so do we in architecture express our designs in lines 
and forms,’ We therefore taxe these forms from those originated by innate 
facelings of mankind, that.they may be apparent and ke understood in the sim 
plest and most natural way. .we can also consider,with slight exceptions, 
that these are just as much fixed as are forms based on the laws of nature.: 

20.: Mouldings and Profiles.: ; 

Such forms are mouldings and such lines are profiles.: They are partly 
composed of geometrical lines and are partly free hand. tie do not desig—— 
nate these architectural members according to their functions.: They may 
represent transmission of a load, a free termination, or union or separa-— 


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temrot sty to sew oft askit tint « bus ows cow sed 
eas pred? wancinasete $3. ‘bas elese to obuticase yd 
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84 ARCHITECTURAL CCMPOSITICN.: 

tion of structural parts, and curves of varied curvature, convex and con- 
cave, some bold and heavy, others delicate and graceful, alternate with ang- 
ular and streight forms; the more closely these lines approximate straight 
lines, the more energetic should Le their: sweep, and beauty of form is bas- 
ed on well arranged graduation, on change of movement, and on the effect 

of light and shade,: 


"> 
“ 


het OL es 
suodivision in general and in detail is to be designed on a single scale, 
not based on an absolute, but a relative unit of measure, which depends on 
the purpose and importance of the building,» Thus we properly speak of the 
scale of a building, and where this dces not exist, of the lack of a uni- 
form scale, Harmony occurs in Grecian architecture instead of a scale, or 
not quite symmetry, but harmony of the whole with its separate parts, which 
appears in the nearly identical ratios of the lower diameter of the column 
to the building, to its principal parts, and to the architectural members. 
The mcedulus replaces the scale, for it has no relations to the dimensions 
of the monument.: whether the temple be small or large, its proportions re- 
wain about the same, and as actually fixed by artistic invention and not 
by the object itself.: But for the vast monuments of the Romans and espec- 
jally for the creations of the middle ages, as well as for those of the Re- 
naissance and the modern era, a fixed scale is taken as a basis, which first 
depends on the height of man, afterwards on the building materials, It is 
indeed naturai to assume this scale, all our buildings being used by men, 
since windows, doors, balustrades, etc., are in proportion to their height, 
dimensions teing only varied, according to whether intended for nerely use- 
ful structures or those occupying higher rank and intended for assemblage 
of many persons.’ 

It is just as erroneous to enlarge the architectural forms of houses and 
uildings to unusual size, as to diminish those of monuments 


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f this be dene, the scale and general effect of the building are changed; 
for it will appear smaller, the larger its scale in proportion to its abso- 
ute dimensions, and conversely. To make this evident, compare Cologne Cath- 
edral with the Church of St. Peter at Rome.’ tho would believe that the lat- 
ter was two and a half times the area of the former? This may be explained 
by magnitude of scale and of dimensions; There a narrow five-aisled.inter- 
ior and heaven-aspiring towers are lost in graceful details, suited to the 
stature of man; here is a spacious interior, decorated by colossal statues, 
spanned by mighty tunnel vaults with a gigantic dome over the intersection, 
beneath which men vanish. The Church of St. Peter indeed excels in grandeur 


extraordinary purposes, like triumphal arches, baths and theatres. 


- 


De = AMNRONKCS sctnoETInEN,. i 8. 
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mo: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
of etfect of space, but the Cathedral of Cologne excels in spacicus effect 
of the masses. : | 

22.° Proportions.’ « 
“The greatest influence upon Leauty of form and effect of the masses is 
exerted by these proportions in architecture. | They ucan the relations of 
the whole to its separate jerts, based on a harmonic syster, and they are 
in intimate connection with the subdivision and the scale, and therefore 
cannot be transferred to any other object and scale, fhe Church of St. Pe 
ter shows that the rroportions may be in themseives correct, but may be rel- 
atively teulty.: Nature shows this, when it varies the proportions of whe 
human body in accordance with age and sex, the proportions of the head, hana, 
and foot to the tody differ in men from boys, and in women from girls.’ 

Therefore if the propowtions of a building may not be arrenged in accord- 
ance with a rule fixed for all classes, but must Le selected according to 
circumstances, one must not yield to a delusion that they ere only determin- 
ed by cur feeling.: Sense of proportion is variously developed in men; the 
eye must be trained to discover defects, just as the ear tinds discords.: The 
architecture of past periods sugplies us with the means in numerous nonuments 
with model proporticns. Frou their study, we find the prop sortions of a tuild- 
ing to consist of harmonic relations between macses and aienamae Letween 
flat surfaces and reliefs, and between length, breadth, and height of mass 
of the structure.: These ratios may be expressed in numerical values or in 
geometrical figures, which afford most valuable data,: but we cannot include 
in the calculation and the drawing the influence of whe site, or of the scale 
and color of the object upon its proportions, and this influence @i Khe BikE 
is very important.’ we must not lose the chief points of view for the pro- 
blem, or a regard for the harmony of the whole.,: what would become of art, 
and what would talent do, if beauty of fora could be deduced by formulae? 
These enable us to subdivide masses and interiors of ungraceful proportions 
in such a manner that the object may appear removed or lessened, and divis- 
ionof the strueture or union of its parts may induce beautiful proportions 
in detail and a harmonious general effect.: These indications require expla- 
nation, But the evidence, other connected deductions, and discussion of op- 
tical effects, must be left to a later part of this volume, | 

b.: Ornament in Form and Colcr.: 

Ornament in relief and in color are other elements of architectural compos- 
ition. These contribute much to the beauty of the building, which might in 
itself be beautiful without ornament, since it could not attain true beauty 
with ornament alone.: 

23,: Origin of Decoration in Relief and Color.’ 


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ae ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION.: 

Inclination for ornament springs from an innate impulse in men to teauti- 
fy their existence.: Men in the & lowest stage of civilization adorn their 
persons and the work of their hands.; From occasional festal decorations of 
important buildings, originally consisting of natural flowers and fruits, 
of ornamental vases and trophies, opening later a permanent ornamentation 
by the aid of art; it became a requirement of art.; Imitation of nature pro- 
duced artificial ornament, either relief ornament in clay, stone, or wood, 
or applied as colored ornament with brush and color.: The elements of relief 
and painted decoration are in the creations of nature. but it would be an 
aberration of ert to seek to produce an accurate imitation of nature. faci. 
art period has therefore taken nature in its own way, and has sought in re- 
presenting it by form and color to bring out the ideas of its time in char- 
acteristic expression.: 

34,° Ornament. 

Grnament undoubtedly belongs to the domain of architecture and is indis- 
eensable to its works, preferably obtaining its motives from the vegetable 
kingdom, though also from the animal kingdom.: It is incised in the surface 
as linear ornament, though this is chiefly executed in color, or is carved 
as relief decoration in the building material itself, and it is imitated from 
living forms of nature with more or less freedom: Conventionalization is 
absolutely essential.’ For decoration must not sink to a slavish imitation 
of nature; we must know how to apply it, to modify its type in accordance 
with the material, to simplify and to conventionalize it. Naturalistic treat— 
ment will be less suitable, wheA the ornament is required to express the cnar- 
acter of a quiet surface by a pattern or a strong rhythm. we therefore dis- 
tinguish between free decorative ornament and structural decoration, the first 
being purely ornamental, the second expressing the construction.’ Decorative 
ornament is a free addition produced by the spontaneous feeling of mankind, 
whose origin was just described. It contributes to the beauty of the object 
by animating and decorating plain surfaces and stiff members judiciously, 
but is not absolutely necessary.’ Structural ornament proceeds from a less 
primitive desire of mankind, expressed by making prominent and by adorning 
the form of the structural part as determined by the style. It therefore 
extends to the actual members of the architectural organism especially to 
those , like the shaft of a column, a console, etc., where the conflict of 
different stresses in the structural system becomes apparent,’ 

Ornament in general, especially free ornament, should in accordance with 
its origin always personify an idea related to the ideal significance of 
the building and taken from the phenomena of life and nature.’ Motives from 
plants do not, suffice; animals must in part supply motives; man himself and 


or ee. i 


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ae ARCHITsCTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
his forms appear in the creative realm of the artistic imagination; animal 
forms are even invented, formed in accordance with the rules of decoration, 
but which must have a justification of their existence in an apparent capac- 
py for life, Thoughtful ornament , composed in such a manner, ennobles and 
mates thé work; it affords food for thought; one would tot become tired 
of tego while meaningless ornamentation, even if equally Leautiful, would soon 
become weerisome.: It is not said that everything should be covered by alle- 
gorical ornament; the more important and effectivé,ls the more sparingly it 
is to be applied. Simple rhythmic patterns are appropriate for animating 
the surface, as well as geometrical frets and bands to enclose it, 

Structural ornament contributes to the decoration of architectural members; 
it has no statical function, but adjusts and lessens the conflict of stress 
es in architectural members. It should not conceal the leading forms, but 
allow them to appear in their structural significance, and lend them life 
and movement. Stone forms naturally prevail here.: The formal treatment of 
every kind of ornament is entirely dependent on material and technical pro- 
cesses, ' 

BD: CGLOL : 

The influence of color upon architecture must also te considered, even if 
it be merely accessory, since it is of great imp atance to the effect of form. 
It is indeed one of the most effective and most prised elements of architect- 
ural composition, both for accenting form in the best manner and for carry-— 
ing out an independent creative idea. The use of colored decoration on the 
gictorial imitation of an object is perfectly natural, since color appears 
in everything in nature, and in building materials form and color can not 
be ee Its introduction is therefore justified in the representation 
of objects from nature and from life.’ This, is true in reference tc archi- 

t , since all architectural styles OnaH obtained a polychrcomatic 
f iy by materials of different colors, partly by cclor decoration. ° 
although external polychromy may have been largely employed only by certain 


navionus, yet wider scope has always been accorded to it in the interiors of 
buildings. : 
oO, Poly ychromy, 


/Finst consider the use of color in the interior, which esthetic feeling has 
ways x ‘squired,’ A hall, or even an important room of a tuilding is incon- 
ete | while uncolored; color is therefore indispensatle to internal architect- 
ure; nothing opposes its free development, and the modern period therefore 
properly makes a most extended use of it. what chiefly concerns the color 
treatment of the building? How is harmonious effect to te ottained? This 
requires a developed feeling for color and an earnest study of the polychro- 


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38.° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

matic masterpieces of architecture; suggestions are to be taken from 
nature, to penetrate into the mystery of its splendor of color in the or- 
ganic and inorganic world, and to derive useful applications from them.’ 1 
learn that upon contrasts of colors and Lroken tones, upon those of prim- 
ary and mixed colors, is tased the harmony of colors, and if we invest- 
igate the phenomena of nature, we find primary colors prevailing in ordi- 
nary natural phenomena and in low forms, but mixed colors in higher forms. _ 

But nature elso gives us by a moderats use of its color materials a 
suggestion for the use of color in architecture... we conclude that a 
tone derives its value from its surroundings, that pure colors tecome 
quiet and harmonious with a broken ground tone, strong and brilliant 
with light and shade, and that mixed colors alone are monotonous and | 
without light.’ we note that the latter remove the object further from 
the eye, the former causing it to appear nearer. These are especially 
applicable to use.of color in the interior, but it is otherwise with 
the polyghromatic treatment of the external architecture. It is not 
in the power of the creative artists to exclude all elements, that may 
produce discord and injure the desired effect. For this depends upon 
external influences, on sky and sunlight, and on surroundings.: A col- 
ored facade is like a festal garment, and the building makes a peculiar 
impression, as a separate decorated object, especially in rain and Snow. ° 
If harmony, the primary requirement of beauty, occurs, the surroundings 
must be suited to the key-tone, and at least to a certain extent, poly- 
chromy must te applied to the external architecture. : hen this is done, 
wise moderation must be exercised, more than in using color in the in- 
terior.’ 

For the polyghromatic treatment of the exterior, as well as of the 
interior of the Luilding, we have the means in natural and artificial 
building materials of varied colors, and especially in the greatly de- 
veloped technical processes of the decorative arts.’ The principal build 
ing material or the local color will give the key-tone of the harmony; 
the chief member will be kept in a quiet and united tone, while strong- 
er colors are permissitle for other parts. Veined materials of varied 
colors are effective and suitatle for small enclosed surfaces, flat arch- 
Zitecturel members, unfluted shafts, etc., but when employed freely and 
as subdivisions, they frequently have an unguiet and disturbing effect.) 
Light tones may te used above and dark ones telow, especially in the 
interior, where persons and objects become more prominent before a dark 
background.’ For internal color treatment and an especially effective 
element in very recent years, is stained glass also properly employed 


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39.: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
in secular architecture.’ In no method of coloring are colors mcre splen 
did, more beautiful, and more harmonious for interiors.’ Color is in 
both nature and art so costly that we fully enjoy its recent advance- 
ment among us, and only wish it to completely supplant the dull gray 
of the last decade, and that a feeling for color may more strongly affec t 
mankind, : 
o?7.' Painting and sculpture.’ 

Ornament, and color justly belong to architecture by their origin and 
by use for thousands of years.’ It also claims the assistance of paint- 
ing and sculpture, which are suited to impart to its works the highest 
importance. No monumental building is complete, or can te finished, 
without these accessories.’ An indication of high development of art 
end of the work of a master in all periods, is the assignment to crea- 
tions of the sister arts the place of honor in buildings. How should 
architectural composition proceed? How should painting and sculpture 
in the service of architecture treat their works? These questions sug— 
gest further study.” we merely indicate the direction from which their 
answers may be expected.- 

The architectural work is to be so designed, that it may remain with- 
out painting and sculpture, complete and beautiful in itself. It is 
to be decided as if paintings and sculptures did not exist, or were re- 
moved from the places assigned them by the master... He places them in 
the tympanum, in the frieze, in panels, and in niches, to impart ‘to his 
work grace and beauty of life by living representations of the beauti- 
ful. but the works of the painter and the sculptor must be subordina- 
ted to those of the architect; they must not disturb unity and harmony, 
nor monumental repose of the building, and must be suited to the spaces 
created for them. Sculptures and paintings must correspond to the in- 
tellectual purpose of the building, conform to it in style and scale, 
and ke in complete harmony with it in drawing, relief and color. Thus 
have the three formative arts wrought together in all ages, contribut- 
ing to the master works of architecture.: Nor will our era fail in this, 
either in ability or desire, rm; ae 

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS. . 
38,: Application of Preceding Laws. : ; vs 

we have here followed theory; we have seen the tree of knowledge .arise 
from a germ, grow by the impelling force of truth,and blossom under the 
power of teauty; by its law, we ascribe to the creations of architect— 
ure the highest consecration and perfection of art.: How i's it with the 
restrictions and the applications of these laws? These are: the same 


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40.: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
inviolable laws, valid in past great art periods and retained in all 
ages.: They are known, but are also misunderstood,’ This especially oc- 
eurs for the principal of truth.: It is most commonly opposed in art, 
exactly as in life. For endeavor to appear otherwise than he is, is 
founded in the nature of man,’ Hence appropriateness and even true beau- 
ty commonly suffers, not alone in works of special importance. Tendency 
to deception is the vice of our era, and is deeply rooted; it has pene— 
trated even into the home; we are pleased to decieve ourselves there.’ 
Is it not generally stated as a special merit, that stuccor appears to 
be wood, and wood looks like marble, that a principal cornice, a roof, 
or an ornament is so made of zine as to appear exactly.like solid stone? 
And all this is due to the art and trush of the painter! 

3o,.° Recent Period.- 

But error agpears in even another direcftion.: The time is not distant, 
when the perfection of architecture was thought to te the most faith- 
ful imitation of an antique building.: Structures were copied, whose 
criginals were suilt many centuries since under another sky, of differ- 
ent materials, for other purposes, and at another scale.: ‘hat was the 
result? A so-called architectural style in accordance with the supreme 
law, which must consist of all possible architectural styles, that the 
entire history of civilization might be reflected therein, just as our 
modern civilization is composed of the elements of all earlier civili- 
zations. : 

40. he Present.: 3 

This age has indeed some good points for it has led to more accurate” 
knolwedgs. it is now generally understood, that however great he may be, 
one men cannot create a style.: It may be a different and better one, 
but is still not good.: Cne no longer copies;~—but composes, though in 
the most different styles. Architecture is believed to advance, when 
the style is modified in accordance with fashion.: Yesterday Greek or 
Kofman was used, now it is German Renaissance or barocco, and it will 
tomorrow be Romanesque or Gothic; Louis kV and perhaps Japanese must 
be found side by side in the same series of apartments.’ whither will 
this lead in e rapidlyliving age? architecture has become merchandise; ~ 
end adjusts itself to supply and demand.: Nearly all styles are now of- 
fered; a bit is cut off from this style, one from that one, all drawn 
from one source under the pressure of fashionl that all earlier ages 
possessed, which we do not miss in tke Rococo, has Leen lost; unity of 


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Al.: ARCHITECTURAL CCMPCSITION, - 
style is lacking. The building is a creation of the age and therefore 
exhibits the attire of the period,: 
41.: The Future, 
what will result from this confusion of style? how is it to ke im- 
proved, and how may the taste of our era Le guided in the right path? 
Only ty holding firmly the unchangeable principles of our ancient ert.: 
but all maybe truly beautiful and correct in theory, yet by practicing 
it one can not live. With the best principles cne may suffer hunver, 
for the truth alone does not lead to abundance, Nothing can be oppos- 
ed to the truth of this argument, so long as owners and the public on- 
ly desire deception.’ The remedy is the teaching of better ideas, and 
ty guidance to the straight, though toilsome path of the gocd, the Begu- 
ul tiful and the True. Who shell transform public conception of the needs 
,¢@ art, other than the artist? what have we done for this? ite have 
couglained, suffered, and blamed ourselves and others. ‘Ye must turn 
about, for we waste instead of utilizing the power of past art periods; 43 
we yield and embrace electism, as it is more convenient to go with the — 
current than swim against it. But we have lost original and spontaneous_— 
treation. To acquire facility again, we must commence the work with 
ourselves, For "Fine art", says Fergusson, "ia a hard task~-mistress, 
and to obtain her rewards, men must work, and think, and sxercise infi- 
nite self-control. False art isan easy, smiling dame, whose favors are 
readily dispensed, tut worthless when obtained". fe will lay hand to 
the work, at the same time speaking for light and truth! Even if the 
mndividual cannot do much, the entire profession may accomplish some- 
thing, a generation so much the more, and that begun todey may ke con- 
tinued tomorrow.’ we hope for success, as a visible improvement and 
a purification of art already occurs.: aAll conditions exist for art in 
fresh tloom, shining forth in the cleer sunshine of a new era of beauty. 
The feeling for erchitecture has become more active, even if it has some- 
times wandered from the path. The public takes a living part in its 
development; the architectural profession has sacrifice and inspiration 
and is distinguished ty genuine anowledge and skill; artisans are full 
of energy, ability, and a wide knowledge of all expedients; we command 
more money than ever before, and Letter transportation, bringing us near 
the most distant countries, end while united, ought we to fail in pro- 
ducing art peculier to our era, escaping from the domain of electicism 
end of fashion? but it is first necessary that the prevailing miscon- 
ception of what is good or Lad, true or false, beautiful or ugly, should 
end. and with this aim, we will hold fast our grand principles of arch- 


— 


MOLMZOWMOO JnAUTOIT DEA Sh 
higgins. Moitigogmon [syesoes - 


RAUTOS THOR WI SuolTaasoR4 tr wOLeLvia 
somabede Faugas weet Ya 


hee ‘fetemepd ~.8h 

inte ie aids 88 Jaul .eottihb ed? to utueed eds eiveas eiwiostidots at aweJ 
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baa biti? of tovaebas ox. .0slzem somaso sonetog tes meidotq s af eele 
Bis: TOT oA. ga ilest atiedtes to tweet toesib ons Aoivulog at ¥tivagt 
goth lived 8 to adisgq Jads voeugein Lis baoyed bas aissyes at st Motos 
. Bist Yea wod -.elodw edt of bas teddo doses 0? moizeiet aeyorq 2 ised sage | 
| wale od berieter t9 seeerore xi mebest: qaa ad Jf m82 .dbetads od noite les 
Rha e024 Agere rt feotatemoss ef 

i pap * bekneras: elestnites end. oved ofaum ai “genet avotsovised’ to emotis [o0 
as ease? nenGiieidiv to eisdaua Jaetetiib evad senos tne1eItid .easdaua a) 
ae Ltt sevad- ada coleydd .broses 10 eblomios asoisietdiv sieds nade os inomesd: 
ea * - rebson sua WOUS eft Bo Giolos To tostie eft ni vitislbite 5 5 hatevode th 


wy 


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Mase ie pads ed Adgnel ati bas ££ 02 & to wake 1Ogotg ai gebia eet: 
162 § aoiis’. Jeoissasa eigniG. .sgnado ets ev isovag JONNBO eys edt. 
bine, Stele? fou! <.2e0ftibs ¢maioas to enoisrosots ett me etsgéstineg y yi 
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4 rtnies @e0ht Wsiv bas .eiy0 2 to ianogeib ¢ ebie to fens bis . Viste 
ebkoty weetbhind 2 Yo -anoienesib [ie soi ,eleoe s Sotoutgenco ashe? | 
a Lanes hth eens boyolqae asssticow fneiens fst bevetl oa, oudlgir 
vlsbhaews ete fo) elgasizs asitqysd ods siakisnseeie to seasd aa gel 
(eats ds dud “lfemstalinpes edt bas ,2eiGae Isupe avin Selgas t4yix ede 
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re A 


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42." ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION.: 


tectural composition. 


DIVISICN II. PROPCRTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE. . 
By Professor august Theirsch.: 
42.: General.: ree 

Laws in architecture assure the beauty of the ddifice, just as this 
is lessened by neglecting them.: To seek and to formulate these princi- 
plies in a problem that science cannot neglect. we endeavor to find and 
justify its solution, the direct result of esthetic feeling.. As for pro- 
cortion, ity is certain and beyond all dispute, that parts of a building 
must bear a proper relation to each other and to the whole.: kow may this 
relation be stated, can it be expressed by numbers, or referred to sin- 
ple geometrical figures? 

Relations of harmonious tones in music have been definitely arranged 
in numters.: Different tones have different numbers of vibrations. | Tones 
harmonize when their vibrations coincide or accord. Physicists have 
discovered 2 similarity in the effect of colors on the eye. But ‘to de- 
duce from this that the eye prefers certain simple ratios of magnitudes 
in proportions and forms is an error,” upon which numerous theories have 
already been wrecked,’ For if two tones harmonize together and one ke 
then slightly raised or lowered, the drum of the ear is set into complex 
cor irregular vibrations, producing a discord.: But if a rectangle has 
its sides in proportion of 2 to 3, and its length be then slightly chang- 
ed, the eye cannot perceive the change. Simple numerical ratios certain- 
ly participate in the proportions of ancient edifices. Much talent and 
labor have been expended in fruitless attempts to discover simple nu- 
_ -BeFT cal ratios to-serve as a basis of the three dimensions in space of 
an architectural structure.’ Only a few points can be given here.: Hen- 
szelmann came to the conclusion that harmony of proportions in the arch- 
‘Stectural monuments of antiquity were neither result of artistic genius 
nor werely accidental. He beleived that he found the secret of the an- 
cient er hitects in the use of the ratio of the side to diagonal of a 
sguare, and that of side t diagonal of a cube, and with these nagni- 
tudes constructed a scale, for all dimensions of a building. Viollet- 
-ie~Due believed that ancient architects employed three different triang- 
les ss tases of proportions; the Egyptian triangle (of the Pyramids), 
the right angled with equal angles, and the equilateral. But the man- 
ner in which these figures are combined on the arch of Titus at Rome 
and on the section of the Cathedral at Amiens is not convincing.’ 

vie may say that these elements do not holg good so far.: If the law 


Ss 
: } Wedd at egetee ciused to 
“ew s beltiveni ef blod bas evieves sift. 
co! Si Udused 15 i {uoeq ied J fos eved 8I@to0 1 Ko siste2t fa 

istoisa ane amiot to Welrev aeitets lot wel « deen wi 


‘@n0Ed Ebnop. S87avib gon aft 


oh ee adie ae Seenugit to etine Liate ie 
Bato oatse-r. giiale: sede sedsd esw wal s owe io ytevoneih ody banwot geta a 


tAge 


q Ber okies ‘eas coda <tdgunsd ‘bi fons dedi oltay bexi) ond, sem nebloy edz to ba 
4 ag tad? 10 2s o¢tet emsa ed? tegte [ add ot aed. enki tdzisate,s. tO NOisI10q to 
ot sonla, asuitos'teb ai ewicssidow os °: ied dsoilges aa elode eft og 

: mete dose oF amoits iss aldigiYtstai eH eved snoisiogorg sviss les 

oes at oder bext? 4a? ted sau? besoo1g bas” ‘Sett- edd tqeo0e Llin ay 

- Caine teal teom 64% to ybute yd -.26iuyii to ytiasii aie eg. tiew se .in 

| ae bam 995 ttbe ttose at bedeades a%0% fsend s bi,it ew aboiieg: fle ob sien 

E.. Fe ; pact Oé, tehto dose oF ‘ie linia semwgit atot sypwie asuey 3 waxeTiib 3243 

a is eT to auto} elqnia 9 agwgit sae're Tih ‘elds equal 220? Bra geen 

Ate © s@gMna Rs, ben tSm00 elas 20% Ivtisosed wediien bens) 95 egy fosned} ti VSe 

i ee: mont seatis jettt yeonis’ dititueed MOle Vic alas 

ele Ani aid? jenoiaivib~due asi mk Studorisgs ef2 to aot yyesiae 

meedo (Lis tos yas, ai sl orn ont of susisen [eubivibst to sof) 
besiay aleda. boeed si fi no bas ew Sostitoge siazasle t9 


& One r6 $795 


f yetutoes iden eltod gi eacitioqox ae ted casi 
| -OlymeT pktou eft ba ; 
ays hietainn cited ai yluselo taom 16 9998 Jdzom 2i vowed ed edt 4F 
. | etelgmoo doxe mYdudnes 6 1Ot begsedoay heyoloms evan agditiogot; 
utdeace ‘ism Loo eda ai asis stedwec is pied <5 jon gaw efise Lis to 
oe ary beds ifistae som eiew soiset bexid siqmes sited tie ice:?. ang to! 
e =. ee eliise tnsyele edz o3 aunt ies te einemugon yveed gaeblo ede 
hal Bes edt bas dmeseguetis istere, eit of eonevedbs atit diiw .soiuda 
ea ed? “Jeoteb #& wetv fatit aft te nottiogorg ai solisiasy s bak? ew . 
best ov. aavies Astemsib to signed edd go dtbaerd of dtgiel to. ai 
stter ¢isuntines «ate ,tmuloo toctdgied. ot etutelisiae to digied 9, 
sq evi at yaoured enistes. gntbiiod Yteve Yliseq anoisgeoxs "et idtiw 
“sobs 0009 Out “tleati ai eselqudo ,teetis avoinontes 2 gtidcezeng 
ee re sq tisizes got beeu em 2ciiet feo itsmasn efiguie yrev yp. :bavot eae 
ih 16 # ewioas ido efqeed giteisrw ni gtiweqseatb togs{ .yoiblivi edg io 
3 ea08% to. erences 8 wastes x9 aoo os eos ig aches ) 


| ae preg es ),gotis® iaotteas't ee 
is teue \ * - x h rere 


4% ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
of beauty exists in then, architecture would be condemned to monotony. | 
The massive and bold is justified as well as the slender and graceful.: 
Different characters have each their peculiar beauty in nature, as in this.: 
we seek @ law tolerating variety of forms and maintaijing itself under 
Lhe most diverse conditions. | 

42,: Similarity of Figures. 

4 Step toward the discovery of such a law was taken when ceising treat- 
ed of the golden mean, the fixed ratio that Euclid taught, when the small- 
er portion of a straight line has to the larger the same ratio as of that 
to the whole.’ Its epplicatioj: to architecture is defective, since the 
relative proportions have no intelligible relations to each other. but 
we will accept the idea and proceed further.’ The fixed ratio is gener- 
al, es well as similarity of figures. By study of the most successful 
works in all periods, we fijd a basal form repeated in each edifice, and 
that different parts always form figures similar to each other in arrange- 
ment and form.: Innumerable different figures or simple forms of masses 
may in themselves be termed neither beautiful nor ugly; combined arrange— 
ments ore alone beautiful. Harmony first arises from repitition of the ' 
primary form of the structure in its sut-divisions, This intimate rela- 
sion of individual members to the whole is especially otserved in works 
of elassic architecture and on it is based their united and harmonious 
appearance. | a aR 

Chapter 1.. Proportions in Doric Architecture. . 
44,: The Doric Temple.: 

If this Le true, it most appear most clearly in Loric temples, whose. 
proportions were employed unchanged for a century.: Such complete harmony 
of all parts was not produced elsewhere than in the columnar construction 
of the Grecian Doric temple.. Fixed ratios were not established, tut from 
the oldest heavy monuments at Selinus to the elegant martle temples in 
Attica, with firm adherence to the general arr angenent and the details, 
we find a variation in proportions, at the first view a defect. The rat- 
io of length to breadth of the temple, of diameter cf column to its height, 
wf height of entallature to heightiof column, etc., continually vary, but 
with few exceptions nearly every Luilding retains harmony in its parts, 
presenting a harmonious effect, complete in itself.: Two peculiarities 
are found: -y, very Simple numerical ratios are used for certain parts. 
of the building, later dissapearing in artistic temple architecture and 
giving place to complex ratios; 64, similarity of geometrical forms of all 
pnalogous parts, which is retained as a leading idea until later antiquity. : 

46, Numerical Ratios.: ei | 
i ; 


od 


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82 - 


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edd 98 edacorg ens 30 $dgied wede beiteiéns ef smeaviiupss seait ed? | 
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44,. ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN.,: 

The following simple numerical ratios are retained in the ancient tem 
ples, : 7 

width and height ef the cell are equal, as well as those of the pronaos,. 

2. Width and height of the facade of the cell, so far as externally 
visible, are to each other as 2 to 2, (Figs. 1,2,7) 

3, Height of the columns equals twice the distance between their ax- 
es (h = 2a) 

4, Height of the architrave equals oue-third the distance between axes 
of columns, or of length of architrave tlocks.: 

The first requirement is satisfied when height of the pronpsaos to the 
top of architrave, or tc ceiling Leams, equals distance between the an- 
tae or walls.: (Figs. 2,&).: an intention is evident to strictly retaiu. 
ratio of height to width of cell of the temple in the colonnade of the 
facade. The four middle columns are so placed before the cell that the 
outer axes coincide with the external width cf the cell. (Figs, 2,4,7, 
9,10).: With the entablature above it, this portion of the columnar facade 
always forms a rectangle, closely approximating to a square, Semper's unit; 
which = Hetght_of column with entablature. 

Three times distance Letween axes.’ 

Since architrave and frieze are usually equal in height, it results from 
3d and 4th requirements that height of the entablature, omitting the gei- 
son, is one-third height of the column. The rude temple at Selinus byt 
,artially fulfils these requirements. (According to Pliny, the height 
of the column was at first one-third the width of the temple). . The fol- 
lowing monuments retain these numerical ratios.’ Temple a at Selinus; Tem 
ple of Poseidon at Paestum; Temple of zeus at Olympia; Temple of athene 
on bgina.: 

These numerical ratios recommended tnemselves for practical reasons; 
the made the designing and execution easier, and were perhaps prescribed 
by the priests.’ They couid not form a rule for all cases and all periods. 

when architecture assumed a Lolder flight and freed itself from ancient 
criestly restrictions, men first abandoned tne limit of height of the col- 
umns and made this greater, so that the column without its abacus, or its 
shaft alone, attained a height h = Za. The architrave block firmly re- 
tained till later the ratio of 1 to 3. The entaklature thereby became 
lower in proportion to the column._-But the other law remained in force, 
thet the parts of the tuilding should te similar to each other and to the 
whole, This harmony comprises 1, the similar forms of the twe principal 
parts, the enclosure and the nucleus, or the peristyle and the cell; <é, 
the repitition of the same forms and prcportions in the parts of the tuild- 


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| 
Bia’ ARCHTTROTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
ing.: | 
46. Ground Plan.: 
1.: With all diversities in length and breadth, comparison of the plans 
shows an intention to give the outer line of the peristyle (edge of upper 
step) the same form as that of the interior of the cell. (Figs.: 2, 15).: 
Porticos are very deep before and behind the cell, but are very narrow 
along its sides, an arrangement nct explained on structural or practical 
érounds.: If the diagonal of the rectangle of edge of upper step be drawn, 
it either coincides with the diagonal of interior of the cell, or is par- 
allel to it. with few exceptions, this is true for the plans of all Dor- 
ic temples, even for the little archaictemple-cell on the dAcropolis at 


i 


\ 


selinus. | 

47, xkpkmkinmkures.Facades of Cell and of Temple.: 

2, The facade of the cell, so far as visible, or to bottom of inner 

architrave, and the facade of the entire temple with its stylobate, form 
two similar rectangles (with the ratio of 2 to 3 in the archaic style); 
the cell and its peristyle have similar forms.: (Fig.: 4).: To produce this 
conformity, high entablatures and stylobages are necessary in case of tem 
cles with a wide space between colonnade and cell, lower entaklatures be- 
ing required for temples with narrow porticos.: (Figs.: 6,7,8).: This al- 
so explains why external entablatures are frequently lower(Fig.: 9) paes- 
tum, or often higher (Fig. 10) bassae than the internal one., In other 
words, the peristyle adds to the cell proportionately as much in height 
as in breadth.: . . 

48, Entablatures.: 

2,° Each pair of trilyphs enclose a metope and form with the portiom of 

cornice above them a combination, in several ways exhikiting a similarity 
to the entire building, viewed from front.: As the cell-walls and columns 
wong the sides inclose a darkened vestibule (pronaos), so do triplyphs 
an the frieze inclose the metopes.: These appear like small spaces beneath 
the protection of the widely projectijg roof, and they are open in front 
and filled with sculpture, like the pronaos of the cell. A closer obser- 
vation shows that the two likewise coincide in the ratios of their mag- 
nitudes, The form of the metope varies similarly from a square, as does 
the opening of the pronaos. | (Figs.:9,10).. The width of the triglyph al- 
so bears the same ratio to width of metope, as that of width of portico, 
including columns and walls to width of pronaos (measured between antae).. 
Simple numerical ratios are most common: ey 

Temple C at Selinus, 1 to 1. 

Temple of Poseidon at Paestum, 2 to 4.’ 


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pvt A tas: caatbluemqitb edt a6 [iow a ,noeteg edt-bas ,{leo ed’ to ybod say 
¥ Re ek ib bebnesxs ofT (Si ff .entt) -.semygit selimin bas goltoelorg 
tes Wa ait ened? to ee {gas eit dguotds ageq Yileveu Lies sid to sheost ofs-%o 
ole tiated boa dtbeend aiedd Yo divet ede gant? yweored? Gort 
. pewislietad lo noitavels. - 28. 
ef: ha gatwot'far ear teixe swisidedne edé to noteavole edt nO. 6 
. \ 718v0 gaid‘tuds aioclsevs: sidowes ows off jeemgtt Isédnoslsod ceonted 
‘ . 18 FS od gnibtooos .Agid asd ‘xegaol seats 6 acstiwe 6 #10? fi LOS 8 
May Sh -avonds. edt ai exseqys eysvls efyasdoe: asliate a. it aes Gme P| 
feds ¢ bear? opie al ewyit wiinte s jedools saeds HIE PORE i isd 5g@o 
1g odd ot miss eyeoggs If bre ,e@bsoct edt to ewisldesae exidde 
feine edd te agi gs irene tqet beoubet s ove doldw ,estivy bne teivget 
i on ald, Padi jt hee sa nas agk k Asmsabaien? neti Yo 


eed 


eaiweail oamuloo edt to fisda of’ booved yaivosiory éuoRyat?: 


46,° ARCHITECTURAL CCMPOSITION 
Temple of Concordia at Agrigentum, 2 to &.° 
Temple of Athene on Bgiiva, 3 to 5.: 
Temple of Apollo at bassae, 3 to 5.: 

Narrow cells therefore require narrow metopes, and wide porticos de- 
mand broad triglyphs.: 

The Land at the top of the metopes is also analgous to the internal 
architrave, while the projecting mutules correspoud to the ceiling of 
the vestibule.: A comparison shows that the mutules, taken with the two, 
bands beneath them, actually have the same ratio to the metope, as the 
entablature to the cell.: (Figs.:9,10).: These portions of the entabla- 
ture and the taenia with its regula were always marked ty their deep co- 
yor as belouging together.: They repeated the form of the entire build- 
ing on a small scale.: 7 

Further, the geison is to the triglyph-frieze just as the entire ent ab- 
lature is to the cell-walls and to the columns. Indeed, the height of 
projecting cornice almost invariably has the same proportion to height 
of the frieze (including mutules with frieze), as height of the entabla- 
ture has to height of the column. Compare corresponding profiles from 
Paestum, Sgina, and the Parthenon. (Figs, 11, 12,18).. Thus the princi- 
pal ratios between stylobate, column, and entablature, are repeated in 
the larger and smaller subdivisions of the entablature.: 

But a relation between the smaller and larger parts is carried out in 
the projections, with especial reference to outline. The portion of the 
abacus projecting beyond the shaft of the column likewise forms a, rect= 
angular projection similar to that of the geison, taking a diagonal view 
of angle column.: The profiles of capitals represented in Figs.: 14 and 
12 are to be considered as diagonal sections projected on the facade of 
the temple. The entire entablature, so far as it projects sidewis beyond 
the body of the cell, and the geison, as well as the drip-mouldigg,: form 
projecting and similar figures.. (Figs..11,12).. The extended diagonals 
of the facade of the cell usually pass through the angles of these ‘fig- 
utes, thereby fixing the ratio of their breadth and height.: 

49. glevation of Entablature.: an 

Aa On the elevation of the entablature exist the following harnobies 
between horizontal figures. The two architrave-blocks abutting over, a 
a column form a surface 6 times longer than high, according to an arghaic 
rule. (Fig.14).: A similar rectangle always appears in the abacus of) Kes 
capital supporting these tlocks; a similar figure is also formed by the\ 
entire entablature of the facade, and it appears again in the graceful \ 
regulaf and guttae, which are a reduced representation of the enteblatiil 


of the facade,with its six conical supports.’ \ 


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aay ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

The form of the cornice block, if.its height be one-half the height of 
the architrave, which is true as a rule, is the same (1 to &), and also 
as the form of the triglyph-cap.: Thusathe facade of the Doric Temple, 
this relation is carried out in the most minute detail ond is intimately 
connected with the number six of the columns (on facade).: 

nO.° The Parthenon.: 

Only an architect of genius like Iktinus dared permit himself to depart 
from traditional arrangement, when he assigned eight columns to the fac- 
ade of the Parthenon.’ He thereby atandoned the harmony of cell and me- 
tope, as well as that of architrave-block and entire entablature, but thus 
obtained perfect harmony tetween the interior and the exterior of the tem 
ple, that had never occurred in the hexastyle plan.. The plan (Fig.: 15) 
shows how the inner area of cell iucluded between columns, harmonizes with 
entire interior enclosed Ly walls, just as this is again similar to exter- 
hal outline of the cell, and lastly to the outer colonnade.- It was thus 
possible to oltain harmony between cell and peristyle in all parts of the 
edifice. (®ig.: 1¢).: It occurrs here, toth with and without stylobate, 
in the last case taking architrave of the inner colonnade together with 
height of the cell. The facades of cell and of entire structure here 
form rectangles of 1 to ¢ instead of 2 to 32.: 

Of other relations, the following are retained: ratio of height and 
projection of cornice to height of frieze, as well as of height and pro- 
jection of entire entablature (beyond side walls of cell) to height of 
columns,: (Fig. 12).: This figure gives projection of drip-moulding, and 
that of abacus of capital viewed diagonally, 

Cn the entablature of the Propyleum,otherwise very similar to the Par- 
thenon, the geison projects considerably more, corresponding to the great 
depth of the pertico.: 

51.: Later Buildings. : 

The architect of the Parthenon followed the hexastyle arrangement in 
the construction of the Temple of Apollo ax bassae, but the expressioj 
of toldness was varied still more than the case heretofore in buildijgs 
in attica.: The character of the edifice is determined ty form and pro- 
portion of the column.» This is the only living element in the stiff 
construction of the structure.: The diameter and diminution of the shaft, 
the profile and projection of the echinus again vary in each temple, ac- 
cording to the taste of the architect and the prevailing acceptations of 
the period.; In the archaic temple, the strongly diminished shaft and fleshy, 
widely projecting echinus express a high degree of energy, that the col- 
umn exerts ayainst the lead of the entablature. when the columns later 


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48,: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

became higher and the entablature kas proportionally lower and lighter, 
men were satisfied with moderate display of force by a stumgy and lean 
form of capital.: The skeletom of the structure remained almost exactly 
the same, but meagreness and weakness took the place of muscular strength 
and energy. : 

an intimate relation likewise existed between diameter of column and 
certain dimensions of the building.’ The width of the triglyph was always 
either half the lower or middle diameter of the column,: Since two spac- 
es between trigylphs are found over one intercolumnbation, widths of the 
triglyphs must be in proportion to metopes as are diameters of columns’ 
to their intervals.: The compressed arrangement of the columns, or their 
closer setting, is repeated in the arrangement of triglyphs.: 

It further results from relation of width of triglyph to width of por- 
tico, as stated in Art.: 3, that in the older buildings these also depend 
on diameters of columns.: 

Table of Ratios.: 


Diam.: of Triglyph width of 

Column to to Portico to 

Interval.: Metope.: width of 
Pronaos. ° 
Temple of Poseidon at Paestum (Mid.Diam.)3 to 4 2 to 4 , 8 to 4 
Temple of Hercules at aAkragas (Mid.diam.)2 to 4 2 to 4 o tes 
Temple of Athene on Egina ... (Low.diam) 2 to 5 2 to 5 B.toup 
Temple of Athene at Syracuse.: (Mid.diam.)2 to 2 2 to 3 2 to 3 
Temple of Theseus at Athens .: (Low.. diam)2 to 32 2 to 2 2 to 8 
The Parthenon: at Athens .'.'.: (Mid.diam.)2 to 8 2 to 3 2 to 8 
Temple of Apollo at Bassae. .: (Mid. diam.)3 to 5 2 to 5 3 to 5 

52. Other Proportions. i 


It would te faulty to treat colonnades only from the point of view 
heretofore assumed, and (tonot alsotake into consideration the ratio be- 
tween masses of the supporting and supported parts. It is always the 
conquest of loads or victory over masses, which impresses us in looking 
at monumental buildings, and in Doric temple architecture, this is espec- 
lally the clearly expressed capacity of supports to resist the weight of 
load laid upon then.- 

The ratio between the mass of a column and the mass of the portion of 
the entablature resting on it may ke most easily observed, if the areas 
»e considered, which these members of the structure occupy on the eleva 
tion. The portion of entablature between axes of two columns is of the 
Same size as the part of entablature Supported by a single column,’ Draw 


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49,° ARCHITHCTURAL COMPOSITION. : ae 
diagonal of rectangle formed by axes of two columns (Fig.17) and extend 
it to top of enteLlature, where it will cut off a distunce d; conanr aay? 
ing a rectangle with this end height of column, the surface d h is form 
ed, whose area equals area a x h of the given portion of entat. ature, 4 
A test of the different colonnades of Doric temples by this method shows, 
that in archaic monuments entablature area exceeds column area, and that 
an the developed style, areas of the two parts approximate equality., In 
the Parthenon (Fig.18) and in the Temple at bassae, entablature area e- 
quals that of a prismatic support, constructed with the ugper diameter 
of column as a Lase d.. . 

Eguality of volume occurs between a prism with a square Lase and a Cy= 
linder of equal height, if side of the prism is.€&é, or approgimately .@ 
diameterof cylinder.: Assuming as at the Parthenon, that upper diameter 
of the column is .8 of lower one, then may the cylinder constructed with 
average diameter of .9 be assumed to equal the conical column in voluie,. 
end from this it results that side of a square rier of equal volume is 
cope Roe" 787, or, e dower diameter of column, so that the mass of a 
sguare prism constructed with upper diameter of column equals mass of col- 
umn. This equality is likewise found in less clo ely set colonnades of 
porticos of the era of Alexander, as in inner portico of southwest build- 
ing at Clympia.: (Fig. 19). 

Zn conclusion, it may be added that of all ratios, that of equality ( 
1 to 1) has shown itself as most important.: This is found between two 
successive parts occurring in intimate connection, as Letween echinus and 
ebacus of capital, the architrave and frieze, and also in most temples, 
Letween diameter of column and height of architrave.: Otherwise, in parts 
treated as diversely as possitle, equality as a ratio is a condition of 
good Kaxm compatibility, and conversely. 
&. Proportions in Bgyptian Architecture, 

oimilarity of figures, was then recopnized and required as a condition 
of good form in architecture in the construction of Boric temples.: It 
is not concéivable that this rule was unconsciously retained Ly instinct 
and Ly thoughtless repetition. It appears to have been transmitted as 
a secret of the craft in workshogs and mechanic guilds of the Greeks.’ Its 
first establishment is lost in the darkness of the prehistoric period, : 
he have reuson to suppose that since a rule existed for Grecian sculrters, 
@ similar one must have been in use even eerlier in 
Qn agypt during the famous 1&th dynasty. 

we shall not Le criticised for this r 
hellenic purists are dis 


s 


architecture, even 


eview of the land of the Pharaohs, 


Sapearing, who hold Grecian art as a purely nat- 


mae ‘ ef ar By ba i tia =) hie fossa, 


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| 8g Bateolone eff 08 awlimte ei. ifeo ed! (0S.gt%) -.elqme? of10d ef? te 
Ne MOREE ,oldieiv a6 %Wt..oe ,ebsos} ati ;aeisavele bas. agigq-diod ak efysed 
UE and adsl east att ;8-07 S$ to offex Asin ef gy 402 eatw 


a lode eis to etvoutis eas 


» oathgted: to cider eds ate eane eit io euatbiind nt evisedo-ouinedtt oi 
oaovatl i303 fit banister yluiit.ce .(& ott) dggnes atl-.os evsitidetws to. 
is izes 08 te Mofisutienoo eaose al beteed ‘alia & yliae’ Hive ,givtoesidot 
dtbeots gaiaiareseb 40% eiguit wiluynedoet 8 lo elenoyeth Yo wav aiT | .adeb 
_swoe eed. rite aves ot eqmmeqas di adtgolone atedmem arly to ides bas 
te parang cn eis eodold jbns aiaitog to Beointos csseveo ed .Aow 
Be) BP aa fi “te iaaibtoo 
ga en te ‘poteages att. Nahe tQvae. at it Lesverg Gi Gaed a9 aeiy eds ileal 


Pr 


Be. dsiw nokiosanos at {leo ed? yi soxéyg ered al aid? .@tugt? ywegitg io 
as  Motaivibdve ald? (.0Je .dcoard | Aevebssd, .wotbs) ookdrog enrevaieit 
at to eens toute eigques aid al Hie Isgg6: ¥ LMwsls. saon bas deqi} beebal @é. 
hoy ee <ptiysa af tsi ood 0% Jon erolerelt Clade-ea | .boiteq cheese 
pe .gdgatD of a6 ase Miteygs Yo aolsagedica: idguond @omad- to vetoyedyys 
Bee te eqys edt hava lqeaq xe woniay wor ,edoedidows .¢tivoisis vtomer ad 
eit oni Bo Sent “at gory) yireliais to efgloatz9 bas eautoesidow algaes 
ae _soeett- 10 eezorle off oF 
a - yeigeloen ate _uwsoostdors odnol. ai ‘anoiixeqod Lf: wegedd 
ie ath Rite ,aoktia af asiqael Sinel = .b3 
ne i “ «ton kk alea ai eeons feild solids of aalgaed oiaol -wsblanoo Lilw ef 


+o ee oasit ‘to olgaes ed? aleesidose aeaod 4) angow gataiznxe yifse 


beviispes oven dtbiw a 
» ae ms abte to noivan Wit 
has e 


: se $ obrol odd jo Eee ane a 
tie neon ors an ill ie 


j 


bs potsitiget Yo digtoniaa leteney edd yfreslo age] e1om eiididxe ,senueclo | 


anoles oved queatil ao slqued beyotemed .aiJ bas ananta ay My 
_w@ky tot i ehtoatos ren bes “@diterog ef! {Line eds 


- mia a 
oe Y ve Sys ma ie Me oo ie aes’ © ~~ ule 


50. ARCHITECTURAL COMPISITION.. 

ive growth of Greece and absolutely reject the assumption of an oriental 
or Egyptian influence.: The horizon of the history of art is enlarged. 
The works of F. Thiersch, Roth, and of braun, have not been in vain,’ The 
important point is that we may assume as proved and accepted the connec- 
tion of the Doric style with hgyptian architecture. ' 

The style of the gigantic edifices at Thebes was developed further in 
another direction, when the cell was surrounded by a system of chambers; 
but several monuments of the beginning of that great epoch exhibit the 
simple plan ct peripteral temple, later atandoned or set aside.’ The most 
carefully studied temple of this kind was built be Amenophis III on the 
island of Elephantine, and exhitits in a very striking way the prototypes 
of the Doric temple.: (Fig.20) The cell is similar to the enclosing per- 
istyle in both plan and elevation; its facade, so far as visible, like 
wise forms a rectangle with ratio of 2 to 3; its Lase corresponds to the 
sut-structure of the whole.: 

“e likewise observe in Luildings of the same era the ratio of height 

- of architrave to its length (1 to 2), so firmly retained in Doric temple 
architecture, evidently a rule tested in stone construction at an early 
date. The use of diagonals of a rectangular figure for determining treadth 
and height of the members enclosing it appears to have already been con- 
mon.’ The cavetto cornices of portals and niches are always arranged ac~ 
cordingly.: 

Finally, the plan of temple prevailini, in Egypt, with its repeated en- 
closures, exhibits more less clearly the general principhé of repitition 
of primary figure. This is here given Ly the cell in connection with a 
transverse portico.: (dfou, Danderah, Erment, etc.’) This subdivision 
ls indeed first and most clearly apparent in the temple structures of the 
Sicha ane ne shall therefore not go too far in saying, that as 
rythayoras of Samos brought mathematics of Egyptian sages to Greeke, so 
in remote antiquity, architects, now unknown, transplanted the type of 
temple architecture and crineciple of similarity from the lend of the Nile 
to the shores of Greece.: 

Chapter II.: Proportions in Ionte architecture.” 
£4. Ionic Temples in attica,: 

we will consider Ionic temples in attica, then those in Asia Minor, fi~ 
nally examining woras ty Rogan architects,’ The temple of Nike Apteros 
at athens and the destroyed temple on Ilissus have colonnades only at ends 
,f the cell; the portico and cell coincide in front view. Equal height 
and width were required, aud as in the cell of the Doric temple, while 
the ratios a side and front differ.. but the same similarity of cell and 


oo 


+ since ai Se sheont ban wety ebie Kited at agaixe ooltszog 
re findaw git ,amtot tesvo bas wean ett te yieslinte ated 
ad) | te eignet ode to Lfeo grore edgy wot bBtiopet ere eied 
1 @f BueRtil no elqmeT oft ni etieq snot to deavol od? |.(38 
te sktor & owns year tidal Asod a(S: 89). Lieo to mot yaolde edd 
fe ie 9 + es “Qe 

: _ iin Agiied Horvthabesai ne To stele eLinaiianis t at nusitoea od: 
4 - dors at ‘Mnoseerys to wel ed? evevo tt dud .enidoutse bestatte yleveiaos 
ipa etudourta Inqtonitg edd to sebia te bebds wooltiog ows edT .xew te 
ethb gfe ome 4 (b8.927) (8 of & offe1) Jt a0 ogee ense als nolsel 


at. Saito fobs ot Xelimia ave hit yteeb bos  fevel ,anotenemth at. gcse? | 


hina abteayino add Wokiw .o Iinw teqeimg oft 22 (ayted idthiw) eniiyue 
em (8S -.g2%) -.eg:0qqua to ¢igted em med dtéw neser od 
suey tain AEB teoquOD th wb elgmet otnol—otsvsa eidd Yo ewes lindas oA? 


are ‘\sdyted Ad Sipe ew oxsitt bac overs tdows ‘odT .@tutelissne ofiot att of 
va i te, fielq at eversidows ed?T -.eldiazeo) as Snetettib as eeiwredso os tus 


‘ 


i rates 
4 
. 


S802 s@hu ey Luce Wwifey afi bas eseirt eds ehaed {stnositod to beeoqmos 
Chapt atead 80{, ,wolstco, ont eteer Fi mogd “,aewai? Lsottrey to celts » 

aoa ley hive sinagih ont to olser edd bas avawfoo edt ao aoll Grasping. 
dsied Weiiewne to tigted to tes at ease eds si Ssett? to sods 
ae koe or elget @At ao totesyex at 2,5 oft to Offer yveod otT .ecmy foo 
tes, 


"Bu ad no not 8s Sh ofl kh to ono wodighl edd bas .(38.929) | 


 gottio4gers ri oale al noe tex to a0 Etoetorg edT 053 Jalil) 


& alsorne attine: oF ofist ones Ode Hiego et ti . isle y thtooy bas mut a1NYO 
- abseqet oie adolirogoxg eaes ent ‘.aimulon to td pid of df aids @e , ot? 
m3 Le aoude te Ad zoolt104 bidey tes odd lo nuizeh sdf a @efeoa Peg ee | 6.89 be 


ori PT ae 


‘ pica as Wethteo edi gaiieT «flew [feo to dnorl of -ewmtalde tne Yo 


| a ee an oe d6 Ldntne qied? of bas etusouiieiva of Moltsoqo%] ems oid seed. 


a ah at svode thiaqwoto O¢ bas evsitidow of emettl Seaytgiiuse ef? b 


ant : . tonIM 4fak. nt dulgweT gindl 34 
OS at ron ti tna at aide Ldashe oival edd ,gnibsooug eg aord | atig@oey 

Ws awore af aid? _ebinwqy yaideidinin ylovieesoous ees iodo su02 to beaog 

43 mane ety bas hasaget Js elquol ods (83 .yk2) jonati4 gs wlqnet ets 2 i 


‘é 
i bP ee 


Bits. emer odd ak eaeitt of evetsiiiow to olsst eff .ayeasnmdh len A gs avelo 


i 6s 0in700 ot bred lidneb ‘do Jedd bas ‘\bned ittneb of eaeist Yo jets ae 


¥ rf th ( 


oe ’ 


brs ao aa tbeoooue ‘edi of notfriogons omen edd ved weiter one te twdusa 


eal bat ted ated ' 


| - "erode 12 tone ng Yo otees edd. 
noktiog erisite eid OF eroteldsioe etd Yo soleivih yas | 
ca a, th (estes isortienceg s) tnavemon ayowls eelwedil es ae cle 
notbivib edd tok Anolstnvath tsubeng 208 eisoe ¢ fouslanoo oF 88 eet a 
1S, vee a eens? to  stgied baal my. 


“ “ 
? boa. oA, " Kiet ~ xy 
eel r ye wat Lt ata ifs em Pe ae Oy Ch eT 


Ei, 2 ARCHITECTURAL CCMPOSITION. . | | 
portico exists in both side view and facade of the Doric temple.: To ot- 
tain similarity of the inner and outer forms, high entatlature and stylo- 
bate were required for the short cell of the Temple of Nike.: (Figs.: 21, 
22), The lowness of these parts in the Temple on Ilissus is required by 
the oblong form of cell.: (F7¢.: 22).: Both rectangles have a ratio of 1 
torre, 

The Erectherm is a remarkable example of an unsymmetrical though har- 
monicusly arranged structure, tut it oteys the law of agreement in anoth- 
er way.: The two porticos added at sides of the principal structure have 
in plan the same shape as it (ratio 2 to 3), (Fig.24), ere entirely dif- 
ferent in dimensions, level, and design, tut are similar to each other in. 
outline (width: heigh), if the parapet wall o, which the caryatids stand. 
te taken with them as height of supgortis.: (Fig.: 27) 

The entatlature of this Attic-lonic temple is in composition analagous 
to the Doric entatlature.: The architrave and frieze are equzl in height, 
Lut are otherwise as different as rossitle.: The architrave is plain or 
composed of horizontal bands; the frieze and its relief scul tures foru 
a series of vertical figures.: Upon it rests the cornice, just as the en- 
tablature lies on the columns, and the ratio of tke height cf geison to. 
that of frieze is the same as that of height of entatlature to hei-ht of 
columns. The heavy ratio of 1 to 3.5 is repeated on the Temple of Nixe, 
(Fiz,26), and the lighter one of 4. 1 to 4,2 is found on the zrectheum 
(Fig.28).. The projection of geison is also in proportion to projection 
of entablature in front of cell wall.: Taking the cornice as including 
cymatium and roofing slat, it is again the same ratic to entire entat] = 
ture, as this is to height of columns. The same proportions are repeat- 
ed on a iarger scale in the design of the caryatid portico; the statues 
bear the same proportion to substructure and to their entatlature, as that 
cf the sculptured frieze to architrave and to crowning ebove 5 

55. ICnie Temples in Asia Minor... 

Varying from the preceding, the Ionic entatlature in asia Kinor is conm- 
posed of four courses, successively diminishing upwards. This is shown 
iy the temple at Priene, (Fiz, 2&8) the Temple at Magnesia, and the Maus— 
Oleus at K kKalikernassus. The ratio of architrave to frieze is the same 
as that of frieze to dentii Lond, and that of dentil band to cornice. Zach 
meuwler of the series has the same proportion to the succeeding one, and 
the ratio of any division of the entablature to the entire portion above 
it is likewise always constant (a geometrical series), An attempt is nade 
un big. £€ to construct 2 scale for sradual dimunitiong fof the divisions, 
the height cf frieze is actually yreater than given ty this method; Lut 


i r or 
cd NI lat RS aa aie ee 


1’ ay # wm ‘a 
aie | Reed - 
- 


f ; wie is rasa ‘exit? blade: bie) sohireg a 
GEE, PEGs. ao rerdats exo ivt oid tet) os qo ibtnan 

wth. 2 ogi hedys edd sone baat jad os tdtout blaoda of 
ee iat beyst 2 ck eyewin ei saute idetae eft to nodsévid 

ee. ‘en tirgs ous é gebgeeie! #8 Seve ewdteldnere sinel ed? to, euty page 
O° ona rca Reever ved asa csp to bits sngte to Beetwos bi onan 


" 7 } ' 

Ay i 

4 MB Sg 

” patency aueod: 1a) >.efquad 

Rr At,  s@Saneloo poorer aad yrivsiao “2 elques lovetgiouen, aft be 
Se an itadners sided none videmtetnes oiycatieg ba» [ido ede gatsaesd 167 ya 

Be Mame A Ving <eltath ond mh wit Gade daq ent 3o seendigl! wiser oh! to dnuoosd fo 

i. ene _ Sihe te fend betiiedo yliess exon sew idly at @anehnoges1102 -.siyaay Ip 

rds eg ei 18S ede 46 eqs Fo. gakitug yd beowborq ying saw tadé bas .egit 

in oa Mbwh euad xo osvdowiiedue 2 gnitdciigen yd to {sowoo-gnités = ¢ 


papiberdge _taes fs to BbelsaeT wisl “e saheagrs ai ata? ( At ye) 
ved o¢ etéoage fhe. ade iobegdgd $3 e@iselis fo alaweT edt sl -.oet awe 
satus oat cy abate Sava wits ta bua Bets Giuoe a bee: ty ab Oneg mi ee i 8 bad 


a ae Te mesh ie ; puta Koo exig to adteda dds lo nol’ tog he ty sf 
eteeals Mu ae ve . | ' doechigiaonae selvesd pateod = Tati 
va | ad : enue ie Die omae odd tididxe secitive wiusee door wet a 


| Metab bas ‘woant eos (20ers ds sbaik Yo wwOT edt lo soblevele shoe? eds 
Sper owe edt 4@%-.22%) .seddo dose of talinia om zooldteq ‘lo seeilituo 
ab Ma¥od ods ‘to mtod feteaey ond bua ,hdgreixve yileoitiasonas e1s eolsas 
-yagau feo add od ei etwdalde ting eis ai _,e%30e0 otaa add duode bap ite 5 te 
| itt AJasied eseiit betdgivog dilw .towo) Io eoiezeo galiawoxo ety ai 08 
yldes geaoe to beaoqnos @% Bo0k bq sit to. gowteidatad —.1ewet eat of 
tee at brogesttes yeas gud APS at) Tetid wish wi as ,eeueg gainetazete 
Tepe ~nogs ib: beweiv B48 eeets Tk . meds dieened aissiqus aehddaf«od 643 of wadl 
4) Pegogsib edd pines age teom beebai ef gwieldsine ed? to. elyns ed?  .g fis 
a iS toxg ont gacit's fh. sign ghalq enes.odd mi agil Latigso ent fo 2litoy 
20) ; | | wtaieg lelineses.ife ai A. LLOb IA Be 
=e ors eois700 Mk ak ee iled eft of et Iesiqno adi to euosds ond an 

5 ba 2% otes edt gaod adweg evedt to gd giod bas achtosjorg ef] -.owieldstas 
ba ie aa ved geisotene enkisno edd jae wgil diod at meds djeened a2tsq edd of ote 
Bh yweasidoss ody to gaéblwow yaisoetortg adt.ot wiinis ef eyctlot avd Josns 
Sen toed gant: ai erwin ida soe bas afesiges Yo aelitotg to yditaitcie onse ed? 
| ah ti ta kg whuotio edt to sngaone ae dud kaneepanneys | b. tsomunon bu. 


Pei init ’ ‘<. yaa» 


ihe 
» 


RES: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION.: - 

a portion of the frieze is always concealed from the eye by the architrave 
moulding, so that the frieze therefore appears lower. than it really is.: 

It should further te noticed that the cymatiun or orowning memter of a 
division of the entablature is always in a fixed ratio to it.: This is 
also true of the Ionic entablature found at Olympia.: The same reguloer 
diminution of courses of stone and of their crowning mouldings appears 

on the entablature on the interior, where it is terminated by the coffers. | 

The plans of temples in Asia Mijor either resemble the Doric pericpter~ 
sl temple (Priene), retaining harmony of cell and of peristyle on the ground 
plan, or a second complete peristyle is employed, producing a dipteral 
temple.: (Bphesus, Miletus). According to Vituvius, Hermogenes invent- 
ed the peeudipteral temple by omitting the inner colonnade.: The necessi- 
ty for treating the cell and peristyle conformably then became greater, 
on account of the greater lightness of the porticd, than in the dipter- 
al temple.’ Correspondence in plan was more easily obtained than in out- 
line, and that was only produced by cutting off a part of the cell wall 
ty a string-course, or by separating a substructure or base from the cell.: 
(Fig.: 29.) This is shown by later Temples of Aizani, Aphrodisias, and 
Saalbec.: In the Temple of artemis at Ephesus, the cell appears to have 
had a high base decorated by sculptures and of the same height as the sculp- 
tured portion of the shafts of the columns.: 

5é.: Grecian Secular buildijgs.: 

4 few Greek secular edifices exhibit the same principle of harmony.’ On 
the front elevation of the Tower of Winds at athens, the inner and cuter 
outlines of porticos are similar to each other.: (Fig.: 39).. The two rect- 
angles are concentrically arranged, and the general form of the tower is 
arranged about the same centre. As the entablature is to the columns, 
so is the crowning cornice of tower, with sculptured frieze beneath it, 
to the tower.’ Entablatures of the porticos are composed of constantly 
diminishing parts, as in asia Minor (Fig.: 31); tut they correspond in out- 
line to the Corinthian capitals beneath them, if these are viewed diagon- 
ally.: The angle of the entatlature is indeed most apparent; the diagonal 
wofile of the capitxl lies in the same plane with it. These two profil- 
es harmonize in all essential points.: 

as the abacus of the capital is to the bell, so is the cornice to the 
entablature.: The projection and height of these parts bear the same ra- 
tio to the parts Leneath them in Loth figures; the outline enclosing the 
acanthus toliage is similar to the projecting moulding of the architrave.: 
The same similarity of profiles of capitals and entablature is shown by 
the tionument .¢ Lysicrates, Lut on account of the circular plan, it is 


stag, oat ° avery 


aa 
“a 
‘% 


eA 
Biss 


o atiter specie aa fanoge tb ode ‘09 
a yas, ‘tal sf BE Bint ‘eis ei ease, odT 
minh Up Rigas? 8a3 YO" bas eB pay aaedta ts au sly 

apr Elaiseney sci ae Hlesiqne-estis: to BgO 

gi ty a. ay te pitioy yatzoe{org 

byes K ast" ‘ia! Cia ee YS pithigon (iiJedied %o 

ene gis oF Ya: ba: oad oe wads Clete 20, aseizk o2 
it i 6foae* ae: Ahh. Nabe aig. nb larshenigy bersag ae pattie ah ai i) baed- ot sea 


nbd surigont ae PEE 


0 ost Ro eee; sa fy "tb | Ea me ae % ba * 
eae: - a ee i A ay cys Se “ahs wh ag a it 44 vo ee Se 
re Pt r es x oe bi steeasy” ny Bie ot * - \ 


“05 $j 9o/ ei absol to eactt- 2a Shonen” y6 eoandd aie ised ‘ee’ yy ifente > 
vhaooxe e036 [dedne to agen. oad .elut s as apbaaiietss © ito i 1. bstebis 


> Teo Le 
. 


ken? Siow. “wisi 2a ‘add? ‘etabacand Ole ois. Eide % adea ods ba 


gede 16ine%9 erosisas ee: santos edt. to eas ‘bai Rieti theg | 6 yd bébsol oe 
<a ideanes: road ‘ax ‘hoe oieen —s edé-at” edie Ldesas of te 220m 


red Sher ASE ‘dedigit * «fies Sg Neds Aiea EE ise1e? ~ ek oud 
List teaos bit dre Ba. oF at ol paige iva ‘Gtied eat : tedigéo’ se iintie? ond 
ef Ysa inde ‘aay “te - * aettosa' “dd ajadh thud tons “fo suns id i? ak be 


: io ised” Yo. “Yésalinol™ yah tena’ ‘ed eade adi’ th ‘ons “eto i i eit? ‘godt tens r 
| Bane nsewted’ ‘Feit eo ets aiisvéng city ‘aasé ‘edt : ilsdes ial ts ‘aot ig 3 
_ to resberg ‘ett ‘ed fase add tok fae feddeoe: aoe 8 dad? basses a te 


BS , 
Wh wg, FE e ‘ aie st * ccd is a RY 
Oe ‘ng ai. 4 2 Rd B. Stayner eee an ny : \Ou a Tsk 


ad 


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Sai. + boylinga hoi saqeh ab ‘enGhiiégerd <.11T xésqodo 
| @elgueT nefisg] © .3t 
-~eaets iis to ovige ak tod eine tiseny | a! jai it newoh at saqis ‘extol. wel 
| aed af ymes. agtisal eat. iehigveng fie tae sigtoning goeione .anoldasz0t 


‘ ~ 


asia" ¢ fate odoitades : aged w ic’ ‘abit ead ities qide fle ahs Gioled ooidtoy 
waists ait mi ae ford beounot 4 SP nad tat euse ‘ead Jat .-.88Gti ai babnae 
sot: pI 18 tinse niot Bobtibe. etidan. aus! | Sei | is. eit 40% j.aalques oiaol 
tkebusnas « elyata ered ove wets ool aie. Mists “fe0¥ of PE 229) waiv eble ai 
ets (igvae oie vie erusdoetietad” ‘ah. _ Bitescod #38: dotdw .sncissoqats 
“pebtont ong wilt as. Hee, ey ta. aye site. oF noisiags o%q of coun ec obs 
ib “Leet Shee Coen | SF pias stivgnel asi o2 (a 28 ooitis, 

(Adgaed od digas Bes isaiooan i. saivoliot ed ovad sable odT 
3.08 Go a= ee ee aah $6 ahiiai¥ eadtie? io o.jael 


we 


.- 
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3 Ot De 2 ee ee me bee + ~ Sihegaod Js roster %% te efqoaar 
3 Of De em ae ew + = BMX ts soitees4 base auniactae to el gue? 
oan 2 .eacl tite: yas ak meds. 2s lques, taluotlo 2 fout204 eton of Yrowted 
| sasT) .swdoune erieas: edd oJ. wliaia ef lee edt jo sebgifyo eisies 

dip wit beaest wees: or waaay Loo: ody 2: : Lbtevi? se ‘steoV to efg 


re 


ip Dee: ‘ ‘aoe , 
iiss... « Pea eT 
re i 6 , tr> R ‘ 5 io 

2 tay - Ty ah Be ee 4 +7 sy ‘ 


Ea: 3 _—ROHTTEOTURAL, COMPOSITION. - 
not the diagonal bit the normal profile’ that corresponds in outline. (Fig, &2) 

The sane is also found in the boric style. Ca the monusent of Thras 
yllus at Athens (Fig.33) and on the lemple of artesis at Bleusis, profi- 
oes of antae-capitals harmonize generally with those of entablature.’ The 
projecting portion of abacus corresponds to projection of geison; the height 
of hawksbill moulding of antae-capitals with its fillets is in proportion 
to frieze of entablature, and ‘the flat tand to the erchitrave.. The pal- 
metto-band on the necking of Ionic antae and on the cell wall is analo- 
gous to the sculptured frieze of the entablature.. 

57, Ratio of Masses.: 

Finally, the ratio of masses of supports to those of loads is to Le con- 
sidered.: In Doric colonnades as a rule, the mass of entablature exceed- 
ed the mass of célumn,: In Attic-Ionic monuments, the coluans were furth- 
er loaded by a pediment, and mass of the column was therefore greater than 
nass of the entablature.: In the Ionic porticos of asia Minor , entabla- 
ture is universally lighter than column.: The lightest load rests uren 
the Corinthian capital.: The ratio of masses is to be further consider- 
ed in the case of complex buildings in stories.: The upper story may be 
higher then the lower one, if its sass be smaller ( Monument of Lysicra- 
tes, Tomb at Mylassa).: The same ratio prevails here as that between mass 
of a statueand that of its pedestal; the latter must be the Ereater of 
the two, 

Chapter III.: Proportions in Roman srond tecture. 
5&.: Italian Temples.: . 

New forms appear in Roman temple architecture, but in spite of all trans 
formations, ancient crinciples still prevail.: The Italian temple has a4 
portico Lefore the cell only and stands on a high substructure, only as- 
cended in front.: Yet the same harmony is produced here as in the sttic- 
Ionic tenplies.: For the cell and the entire edifice form similar figures 
in side view (Fig.: 24).. Most rectangles also have here simple numerical 
croportions, which are repeated.: The substructure and the entatlature 
add as mush in proportion te the height of the cell, as the grojecting 
portico adds to its length.. 

The sides have the following nunerical ratios (height to length): 


Teuacle of Fortuna Virilis at Rome - ------------ EMO 
Temple of Jupiter at Pompeii- -----------. ----ite 2 
Teuple of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome- - - - - - ~ - - -1 to & 


nermony 18 more perfect in circular teuples than in any other fora. The 
visitle cylinder of the cell is similar to the entire structure. (Tem 


ple of Vesta at Tivoli).: If the coluans stand on steps only, the cell 


ieca sins aly hee et tae 


peter: pssst lial abeemmmcebinen's oved tenn 
rot £ ¢ baa Isnwest to ystmttate déiv exeduyzove se0n 0% - lemon 
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64,° AROHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. | 

must have a string-course in order to not seem too high.: (Temple of Veste, 
Kome).: we meet everywhere with similority of internal and external forus 
in the varied ground plans of the temples of the imperial period. ‘hen 
the cell is enclosed along both sides Ly porticoes, facades of cell and 

of entire building are similar to each other (Temple of kars Ulter and 
Temple of Dioscuri on Roman Forum). aA string-course separates the cell 
from the tase, which is then analagous to the substructure Leneath col- 
umns.. The similarity of the cell to peristyle is carried farthest on 

the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbec. (Fig.: 25).: 

In abnormal plans of temples, like that of Woncordia at Rome, (Fig.: 36) 
where the portico tefore the cell is narrower than that, the two still 
have similar forms.: The portico of the Pantheon harmonizes with the cir- 
cular edifice, since the two have the same ratio of width to heizht, al- 
theugh otherwise so veyy different.: The pediment is itself too much in- 
clined, but harmonizes with the dome covering the cylindrical portion. 
The interior of the Pantheon everywhere affords examples of beautiful har- 
nony, possezssing almost Grecian purity.: The equality of height and width 
of the entire interior is repeated in the openings of the great niches.: 
The gilasters of the upper order are grouped just like the columns and 
pilasters of the lower; the upper arrangement being repetition of the low 
er at half size.’ Finally, the columnar enclosures of the small altars 
harmonize with the two great pilasters which flank the mass of the pier 
and form cn the sides of the small niches a concentric symmetrical tor- 
dering.: (Fig.27).: 

59.°. Triumphal arches. : 

Triumphal arches merit special notice by their original and harmonious 
composition.: The rule is adhered to, that the two columns or pilasters 
enclosing the archway must form a figure similar to that of the archway 
itself.: The inner pair of supports carry an arch and the outer pair a 
hcrizontal entablature, this contrast keing harmonized by the coincidents 
ratios of width to height.: (Fig. 28).. 

On the Triumphal arch of Titus, (Fig.: 89) the square is used as the bas- 
al figure and is generally retained, though the attic is rather too hizn, 
a defect avoided in the arch of Trajam at Eeneventum. On the Triumphal 
arch of Trajam at Ancona, (Fig.' 4C) a rectangle with greater height than 
width and a ratio of 1 te 2 for its sides is employed for the opening, 
for the inner and outer lines of the adjacent engaged columns, as well 
as for the entire outline.’ The columnar order of the portal is further 
enclosed by the mass of the structure with proportionally similser width 
and height.: at.Hadrian's Gate in athens, (Pig.41) three pairs of sug- 


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55 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
ports with similar intervals enclose the panangs way, the upper story re- 
peating the same. forn.: . 

The Triunphal arches of Septimus Serverus and of, Constantine (Fig.: 42) 
with triple openings, exhibit the same relation between the archways and 
their enclosing members. ° For practical reasons, the side openings for 
persons on foot are narrower than the principal gateway, intended for rid- 
ing or driving.. The returned portions of the broken entablature must here 
be taken with the columns, when these are compared with the piers of the 
archway.’ The impost cap is even analogous in composition to the cornice.: 
but if the two columns at the sides of the principal archway te taken alone, 
they enclose a square central area (height of columns being equal to dis- 
tance between them), end the mass of the entire structure encloses this 
at the sides and top by an equal width, : If the gateway be further assum 
ed as filled by a crowd of men (5 feet high), it al 50 becomes square and 
harmonizes with the adjacent columns, as in case of the other monuments. . 
The side archways then approximate the forn of the principal gateway. 

_, Moreover, the height of attic of Arch of Const antine is so arranged as 

to make the middle archway rélatively as high as the side archways; (Fig. 
43),: or the faade forms a group of three similar parts standing beside 
each other.: As the horizontal entablature extends above the principal 
gateway, and the space for inscription covers the attic, so are Lands of 
reliefs and sculptured panels placed above the side archways.: Harmony 
in proportions of masses, but variety in treatment of analogous parts, 
are leading principles in Roman composition.: Simple numerical ratios al- 
ways participate here.: The distances between the axes of columns are in 
proportion as 2: 3: 2 The principal gateway forms a rectangle whose 
sides are as 3 to 4; height of columns is twice the height cf pedestal, 
etc, | 

80, Proportions of Blevation. 

The relation tetween the parts of elevation successively atove each oth- 
er must still be shown.: This most plainly appears in the side view of 
the triumphal arch.: (Fig.44).: The subdivision of principal story into 
sedestal, column, and entablature is also repeated in the attic.. The ra 
tios of these parts of the elevation to each other are as 2:4: 1. The 
pedestals of columns and of statues are subdivided in a strictly similar 
manner. The same analogy appears in the elevation of the Incantada at 
Salonica,: (Fig.: 45).: The repitition of the design of the entire struc- 
ture in its sultdivisions is very clearly shown in the outline of the Ter- 
cle of Fortuna Virilis (Fig. 48).: The cap of substructure is a repitit- 
ion of the entablature, and the Lase of substructure repeats the substruct- 


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Be. ARCHITSCTURAL COWFCSITICN. 
ure itself, the profile of the tase corresponding to the Lese of the col- 
umn taken with the steps. The similarity ot subdivision of the pedestel 
and that of the entire order is most accurate on the arch of Septigus oe- 
verus.: Compare also the shrines of the Pantheon with the ainute subdi-~ 
vision of their bases. . 

&1,- Subdivision of sntatlature.: 

Repitition of the general in its parts also prevails in the sut-divis- 
ion of the entablature.: while in Grecian architecture the entelLiature 
extends upward in an arrangesent corresponding to the comtination of ceil- 
ung and of roof, sutdivision of the Roman entatlature becomes « purely 
external decoration.: The cornice with its ornaxentation here forme the 
chief part of the entablature and predainates over the remsinder. Lhe 
mouldings crowning the architrave are reduced and simplified imitations 
or precursors of the cornice., This harmony already occurs in the frotile 
of the Grecian entablature; it is also very distinctly shown in profiles 
of Italian entablatures, and it governs the subdivision of richly sculp- 
tured marble entablatures of the Roman imperial pericd.: In the Grecian 
entatlatures, the upper fascia of the architrave with its mouldings and 
the crowning fillet is a model of the entire entablature. (See treetheun 
Temple of Nike, Temple of Priene, and Tower of Winds; Figs. £¢, 25, 2€).. 
The subdivision of the Italian entablature is such (Fig.47), that the up- 
per fascia of erchitrave Lears the sane proportion te the mouldings crown- 
ing it, as that of frieze to cornice. (Caps over doorways at Cori and 
Tivoli and entablatures et Pompeii). 

Both modes of subdivision have teen applied to Roman profiles, The Gre 
cian principle is followed in entablatures of Temple of the sun ty aAure- 
lian (Fig.49), with its architrave divided in two fasciae, and of Teucle 
,f antoninus and Faustina (Fig. 4&), as well as in those of Temples cf 
Dioscuri end of Concordia on the Roman Forum, divided in three fascias. | 

The Italian proportion is employed in almost ail ether examples now re- 
maining; as the cornice is to the trieze, so is the crowning moulding of 
the architrave to upper fascia (Fig.f0).: The three principal divisions 
of the entablature, cornice, frieze, and architrave, are usually of equal 
height (omitting cyma cf cornice), and correspondingly the crowning mould- 
ling of architrave, the upper fascia, and the micdle fascia with its mould 
ing, all form equal parts, The same contrast of moulded and plain meaters 
placed side Ly side and equal in height is repeated in tie lower division 
of the cornice.’ 

licreover, the cornice usually bears the same proportion to the height 
of its lower portion as the fillet of the architrave to its moulding. { 


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or: ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITICN.: 
‘Orders of Coliseum, of Portico of Cctavia, of Shrine of the Pantheon, and 
of Temples of Dioscuri and of Concordia).: where the crowning moulding 
of the architrave has a cavetto according to custom in asia Minor (Temple 
of the Sun by 4urelian (Fig.49) and Temple at Palmyra (Fig.51), the eyma 
must always te taken with the projecting cornice in the comparison.’ Yet 
this also occurred in the Pantheon, on Temple of Vespasian, and on Forum 
of Trajan.: where offsets of the architrave are decorated Ly ogee moul d- 
ings ornamented by leaves, those exhibit a regular increase in height to- 
wards the architrave cap moulding. an example of this and of the repit- 
ition of main divisions of the entablature in sutdivisions of the archi- 
trave is the beautiful cornice from interior of the Pantheon above the 
entrance doorway (Fig.: 52).: | 
A more important relation also exists between the profile of the capit- 
al of column and that of entablature.: As on the Tower of winds at athens 
(Fig.: 31), the two profiles correspond in projection when viewed diagonal- 
ly, as well as in subdivisions in height.: The geison, either with or with- 
out the cyma, corresponds to the abacus, and the three divisions of the 
entablature to the three rows of leaves on the tell. The modillions that 
support the geison are analgous to the volutes which curve beneath the 
abacus, (Fig.53) From this point of view, the Composite capital is com 
pletely justified.: The minute subdivision of the cornice is especially 
prefigured by the bold and ornate division of the surface of the tell. 
The same relations are found in the plainer treatment of Roman, Loric and 
Tuscan orders, between profiles of the capitals of columns or pilasters 
and the entablature.. (Fig.54).: Compare with this the Grecian example 
(Figs82),: 
while the Grecian style thus places large and simple forms Leside each 
other, apparently without adjustment, but holds them in stricter depend- 
ence upon the entire structure, Roman architecture, after this conneetion 
is loosened, is pleased by repeatedly subdividing the parts of the entab— 
lature into forms similar to itself.. The gracefulness therely obtained 
affords compensation for omitted sculptured ornamentation of the Grecian 
entablature.' (Compare profile from substructure of Temple of liars Ultor, 
Peers with that of Doric capital from Theatre of harcellus, Fig, 64), 
é2,. Statements of Vitruvius. : 
Neipebetnibertinns Brion trie tine sciatic pace 
er it has nowhere been stated? Such an import- 
ant point of theory could not be kept secret and could not be assumed as 


self-evident. jie must seek whether the basal principle was stated any- 


where in the writings of the ancients.: The writings of Grecian architects 


FORE TELS DS &, zh)? eR Ma tal Dati fae 


a apelin : 
& t 4° 


tron ent tnd beebat ome ite Wnty Gi xstntevence edt baa’ 
» ee at bev va “rey pong tecee oa Jévsistbeb seviwitil feetidow asmod eff 
fe ewe "eae ni aokisa1otnt .eeswee netoen) most awetb sew aide sonte 
ct ost eouly nk aids to ofoga beebut of .ti mott bedoeuxe ef uss me idorg 
aa soy ,beriesh od tigia dedt sasaise lo bus [ieded {fe i2iw Jon dguodtis ,ae 
wats Ns ssw | mies te wirsitele eds * eveloieg. of av tiateq og a2 yloists op 

. _.etloetitow to wel bettineasit 

Te - iete005, at GWtosd ine ts 40 @olva ef? to adseqa swivel’ erode .taxtt 
| .wgittsg ai selques to moisouttanco edt to siseqe ef bas ,(G.ced2 .1 dood) 
He seo ei | .devteado ed of “qtdenaya" sertinges eri «li qed wi dood) 46 ly 
eseciiquh 6 ebis one gaidss ,sevisd ond to ysileups sdz eidt yd asem ton 
@f softisnsiqxve ath whit wot bebeon gated Wal [eiseya on :tedio eft. te 

: toss Lanett a’ sited si ew? enue ws! ywtsidu yedtar ekit doe ,toetetteb 
" —s—s'& te ad4ung fenevee off feowted ynomted eldseetys tadd ai aotfsvogord " = 
a; . ddiw: aoiid te. dremeet3¢ aeiuzet bas Seu; a to Jluset ed¢ 2 deity .gaibfiod 
_ ¥e dose bas Atgael G3 oF add .dtbiw edd o2 tdgied add to -redso done 
bas -aadto dese vtiv ssicowiad save #imeq edi eudT " lode ed? of seodi 

if ent to a104 eit of bas seio dose ot biogse1t00 deum yods xelody adt dtiv 
s8bau oa of Rihesdvobay | al Bae seater bis — eidd “a Risen: 


“ig Wical iat + OF 


ee & 


ti sredit \vateuse3 to t6tata Inotsas ed bi loud to aoka! ‘i end ode? 
Riajogiand od <G@inomelt aif to IV dood ai eetHait 36 ytitelinie eft to eteesJ 

| a wotoed? ai @udl .owetdedd bas adokiiniied a at "svogofsne" hrow odd 
yee ete aelgns [supe @Jinegqo aebis edd jeeigne ieupe ovad selras ies. tT 

079" vd "Bigoisne” brow odd be19b001 cals o160}3 ‘"tedto dose of suoxo 
: eye ofw ,autvursi¥ of asutes ‘eUesaiT odd to noite leneis sid ai "olftog 
- eelut eaodw .Civemaye mo ebnegeb asfqaet lo saizeh sil (2 .gedd Zoe) 
. £0 trebnoqeb ai Kttoways .evierdé of ivtewss taom ed blyods re 
obs ssolo sc ai noifroqoerd - *sigoteaa" ‘tfeo edeetd edit doide Molttogstg 
_ loan ety od bre ‘tense dos6 o} eh, Jase TIib edt to posts odd to saga sayy, 
ao * cabitieyeb itemtye ineadagt ibs Tqo7g eiftt co es 
Weare ek besoip aoitiniish end rosie &evig auivurti¥ doidw noi ters [- qxe iT 
Semud odd af as edd ynted - .bsioeqxe 5d tdgis ede ‘sox dnwredtib beebad 
eh etinites & etl eotsq [le blvods .stiidourse ‘iste soestdorg ts at oe Voy 
‘ea sans Situpet jon bib aids seerses of ewises to ting s- Yo actti3 tigen 
| wht eayboiget Yldiseog euivuaiV bic (ivsaaye Yo Aoitiniteh belisteb 
Asie. tsiqsdo eft ehae 6H Tet ‘garkbos seusbay gilts’ suontiv aoisiniied seer 
ae ef * (astwwii¥ a"t9jef a0T! besslanet! sud tlind qf bettinc) sbhxor eds 
ies aboy: isatommt ed¢ to wolquas si} pikbd yedd dédw (odw joaods ythabs 


: a 
hie caty ate 8 as 4 tinhateges seind tedd edro sheds to stany edi bene Pore 


hea 

hia. 

a 

i 

i iy 
+’? te 


A 
(ae 
ey oe Pye a : 

we es - * x - 1 ‘ - i . .) se sr . a 4 : 
ant: F a dy + oo a r ak 4° at * ches, eA Teo 4 z: i 4 * = 
~ 7. Py oe ‘ft 4vee fee Fa : ? oS et ek oh 7 ont bia en? = wei aes ae : ; 4 
. a aa ‘ Ce. a4 peat se : Pt a ” Say Sa er oe a Dus’. i SES Wa. f se 6 Fie eH a | g 


58.° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

‘and the commentaries on their temples are indeed lost, but the work by 
the Roman architect Vitruvius, dedicated to G@ctavianus, is preserved, and 
since this was drawn from Grecian sources, information in regard to our 
problem may be expected from it. He indeed spoke of this in three plec- 
es, although not with all detail and clearness that might be desired, yet 
so plainly as to permit us to.percieve ‘ that similarity of form was a 
transmitted law of architecture. 

_ First, where Vitruvius speaks of the rules of architecture in general 
(Book I, Chap.2), and he speaks of the construction of temples in partic- 
ular (Book II, Chap.i), he requires"symmetry"™ to be otserved.: He does 
not mean by this the equality of two halves, making one side a duplicate 
of the other; no special law being needed for this.. His explanation is 
different, and this rather arbitrary law runs thus in Gwilt's transl ation 
= " Proportion is that agreeable harmony between the several parts of 2 
building, which is the result of a just and regular agreement of them with 
each other; of the height to the width, this to the length, and each of 
these to the whole." Thus the parts must harmonize with each other and 
with the whole;: they must correspond to each other and to the form of the 
whole.: by this harmony and correspondence is undoubtedly to be understccd 
similarity of forms of the parts and of the whole, 

Take the opinion of Euclid, the ancient mester of geometry, where he 
treats of the similarity of figures in Book VI of his Elements, he employs 
the word “analogous" in definitions and theorems. Thus in Theorem 4= " 
If triangles have equal angles, the sides opposite equal angles are anal- 
ogous to each other".: Cicero also rendered the word "analogia" Ly "pro- 
portio" in his translation of the Timaeus.: Return to Vitruvius, who says 
(Book III, Chap.i): “The design of temples depends on symmetry, whose rules 
architects should be most careful to observe. Symmetry is dependent on 
oroportion, which the Greeks call "analogia".: Proportion is a close ad- 
justment of the sizes of the different parts to each other and to the whole, 
as on this proper adjustment symmetry depends. " 

The explanation which Vitruvius gives after the definition quoted is 
indeed different from what might be expected, being that as in the human 
bofy, so in an architectural structure, should all parts form a definite 
repitition of a unit of measure. _ To express this, did not require that 
detailed definition of symmetry. Sid Vitruvius possibly reproduce the 
Greek definition without fully understanding it? He ends the chapter with 
the words (omitted by Gwilt, but translated from Reber's Vitruvius): " we 
admire those, who, when they built the temples of the immortal gods, so 
arranged the parts of their works that taken separately or as a whole, 


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pet eh en ee cokes = 5 ree ee eerie bp ae 7, 


Bee, enUulleClbaab CUakCsllivn.. | 
their subdivisions have teen treated -:4n accordance with proportion and 
synmetry".: mn 
Chapter IV.: Proportions in Early-Christian and itediaeval aArch- 
itecture.° 
é3,: Early Christian basilicas.: 

Let us *erace these ground principles further in the History of arch- 

itecture. Paganism was overthrown, temples of the Gods fell into ruin 


and new ones were built no longer.: Religious traditions of paganism were 
broken and extinguished Ly the victory of Christianity, which likewise 
caused architectural traditions to pass into oblivion.: Instead of anti- 
que temples, Christian basilicas were erected, and church architecture 
was steadily developed in buildings at Ravenna, in domed structures in 
the Byzantine Smpire, and in the Romanesque and Gothic architecture of 
the west.. If the theory of proportion be not based on caprice, but on 
the nature of the case, and of the spirit of the man, on the laws of the 
Leautiful, then will it appear in these new domaijs also.. 

No value was placed on the exterior of the basilica, so that we can ex- 
pect no systematic treatment there. Chief emphasis rests on form and treat-— 
ment of the interior.: The rule is general, that side aisles must have 
the same ratio of height to width as the centre aisle. (St.: apolliuare- 
in-Classe at Ravenna; Cathedral cf Parenzo, Fig..57).. The most import- 
ant internal effect of the tasilicas depends on the long rows of columns.: 
These exhibit in ppespective a series of contiwually diminishing simil- 
ar figures with regularly lessened widths.: Cn this fact is chiefly Las- 
ed the beauty of the uniform rows of columns.: 

64,° parly Christian Centralized buildiugs.: 

The treatment of centralized structures is of a different nature,’ Al- 
ready in Roman architecture were the abutments of the dome transformed 
into a circle of niches.: These are now treated simarly to the principal 
Space. - It is found in St.: Vitale at Ravenna (Fig.58) that the columns 
of the niches enclose figures similar to those enclosed by the great peirs 
Gre wnt nin USS Heats ee nae aeons eae 
ber of columns in the Bocktf ts Phra AERA py Consiant inp te. ie ie 
proportion of height of column ee ial di PRS Ae ae 
TT eT n to +nbercolumni ation. 
of the stories are 1, gy rbiy ERR aL S2s 1OReR 

ve to seven.: 
to gee usual plan of the Byzantine Ried 
panied by several similar side dones.: 


For there are sev- 
while the heights 
It is scarcely necessary to refer 
rch, where the main dome is accom— 


cd 
at, 


= 


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20 ARCHITECTURAL QOMPOBITION. ° 
€5.: Romanesque Churches.’ | 

The harmony in Romanesque churches between center and side aisles, and 
principal and side apses is merely approximate. The round-arched friens 7 
and the low-arched gallery are repetitions of the arch beneath them., like 
the triglyph-frieze above the colonnade.: Proportions of the stories are 
frequently fixed by the treatment of the openings.: Thus, where two arch- 
ed openings are placed atove each arch of an arcade, the upper columns 
have one-half the height of the lower ones. (Cathedral at Pisa; Cathea- 
ral at Autun; Church of St.: Saturniic at Toulcuse, Pig. 5%).. The similar- 
ity of side aisles to center aisle is frequently expressed in the facade.: 
In St. Zeno at Verona, the portal also repeats the same fornr.: 

6@ Gothic Churches.: : 

ne now enter the domain of the Gothic style. It differs extremely fron 
the classic styles and completely Lreaks from antique traditions. It part- 
ly adheres to the older church architecture, but otherwise cevelops a very 
peculiar nature.’ This is that all large forms are repeated in details 
or imitated in smaller parts.: Pinnacles, gablets and tlind tracery are 
repetitions of towers, gables and window tracery. The manner in which 
these elements spring from the mass of the building corresponds to tree 
growth, whose tranching and ramifications, even its most delicate twigs, 
continually repeat a fixed form.’ where this does not cverload the mass- 
es of the building, examples of simple and clear treatment are to be found. : 
Thus on the Church of St.’ Elizabeth at Marburg.: (Fig.: 20).- 

The simple numerical ratios of principal dimensions are first emchasi- 
zed: height and width of three-aisled interior egual each other; width 
of middle aisle from center to center of piers is twice the width of side 
aisles, The plain facade with two towers is effective by its proportions, 
by the fine appearance of the masses, and invites study of the proport-— 
ions, : 

Center lines of buttresses divide width of the facade in proportion of 
é€: 2: 8. The chief lines dividing the height are accented by foiled 
bands, which show that height of the tower to base of spire (tell story) 
is twice the height of nave. The shaft of the tower from cornice of nave 
to bell story has the ratios of 4: 2: 5 to this and to the Scire.: To 
this larger form correspond the small towers at angles of iell story.: 

The opening of the doorway, the wall area containing the portal, and the 
crntral area of the facade atove this, are figures similar to that of the 
facade of tbe. church below bell story.: 

Above the ventral area of the facade, whose large and fich tracery win- 
dow forms the principal figure, the applied tracery with catels and fin- 


. Mets diseased eheoet @de 3o awobni«, 


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&4,° ARCHITECTURaL CONSTRUCTION. : a 

ials is arranged like the spires with their gables and pinnacles atove 

the f acade.: The high wall spaces of the towers with theif slender win- 
dows are enclosed by masses at. sides and telow, in proportion to the two 
windows of the facade beneath them.: Especially effective is the visitle | 
reduction of masses Ly offsets with increased heights of the stories. . The 
higher the stories of the bottressees, the more is their width diminished, 
so that. approximate equality of masses results in two successive portions 
of the piers.: | | 

The most Leautiful window tracery is composed of larger and smaller mul 
lions, which repeat the larger, as the separate parts do the whole. with 
harmony in principal ideas, the greatest diversity in other parts is re- 
quired to avoid monotony and produce a pleasing contrast.. The capitals 
of the little shafts of a Gothic pier are frequently decorated Ly leaves 
whose mid-ribs or stems bend over, spring from and intersect each other, 
just like the ribs of vaults above them; this is here given on a small 
scale, but is to appear on a large one.: 

vie limit ourselves to noting that.the facades with two towers for the 
finest cathedrals are subdivided to produce similar rectangles, that the 
central space with rose window is usually similar to the entire facade, 
and that heights of stories of towers either continually increase upwards, 
producing an aspiring tendency, or diminish as the stories become narrow- 
er, like minarets in Cairo, whose Leauty consists in similar proportions 
of stories, and in the diversity of their ornamentation. The examples 
show that Gothic made the most extensive and frequent use of the princi- 
ple of repetition of main forms in details. 

Chapter V.° Proportions in Renaissance and kodern architecture, 
67, Churches in Italian Renaissance, 

The Middle ages drew to an end; chivalry and romantic poetry disappear- 
ed; the great Gothic cathedrals remained unfinished. One of the ereat- 
est changes in taste commenced. Cther ideals were sought and attention 
was directed to classical antiquity, slightly known and tut little esteen 
ed, Admiration of this produced the architecture of the Renaissance, With 
the architecture of the Greeks and Romans, the ground principle of arch- 
itectural proportions was again revived and applied. whether architects 
fiyst employed this in practice and afterwards in theory, or conversely, 
or {whether it was done with clear understanding or not, the former may 


beitrue, for it certainly appears in the most beautiful monuments of the 


Italian Renaissance. The sane elegant proportions appear as in antiguity, 
rae harmony is no longer 


: produced by approximation, but is geouetrical- 
1 4 a 2 > -, * 
} exact; in its rich development, Renaissance architecture atfords even 


SOMOO Ja S83 

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| Bolotdo to sebscet mo soinomasil oueds esididxe if fesnts otoosd <:(eone 
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|  «« Beege Suns ge serbad | vG ai lebom s evsy isvedia fioidw tot ,eleis of 
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ebsost to moieivibdse —.95 

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ag ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
more abundant examples and proofs than do the remains of antiquity. Ex- 
amples present themselves at every step taken under a guide like Buhlmann. 

In church architecture, Erunelleschi introduced the same ratio of breadth 
to height for middle and side aisles (St.: Lorenzo and St.: Spirito at Flor- 
ence); baccio Pintelli exhibits these harmonies on facades of churches 
at Rome (Fig.'@1), extending to their towers.: In churches with a sing- 
le aisle, for which Alberti gave a model in St.: Andrea at Mantua, apses 
between abutments of the dome repeat the form of transverse aisle, and 
are in the same proportion to this, as are the smaller niches to the ap- 
ses, Still more decidedly in the Church of St. Maria di Monti in Rome 
do the chapel openings in the piers imitate the main interior.- 

The subdivision of the Roman triumphal arch (outline of side division 
being similar to that of middle portion) reappears on the monumental tomb 
of vodge Vendramini at Venice, as well as on Tombs of Prelates in St. Maria 
del Porolo at Rome. subordination of lesser to principal arches occurs 
most simply in the cross section of the Church of St.° Salvatore in Venice 
3 ‘Fig. €2) .and.is-repeated in the altars and wall tombs of the church.: 

In centralized churches, smaller domes follow principal dome in plan 
and elevation {Fig.:¢3).: The drum beneath the dome soon formed an upper 
story and had externally the same ratio of breadth to height as that of 
the entire church beneath it. Examples are St.: Pietro in Montorio at Rome 
(Fig. 84), Consolatione at Todi ky Bramante, and Church of St. Peter at 
Rome as designed Ly Michael Angelo (Fig.:65).- It is a merit of Michael 
Angelo, that he succeeded in retaining this harmony in erecting the Church 
of St.: Peter, when he attached to the exterior of the church a Single great 
order of pilasters and repeated its ratio to the attic in the arrangement 
. the columns of the dome.: (Compare Similarity in outline of upper and 
lower stories of Roman triumphal arch Fig. 44) 

é8.: Private buildings in Italian Renaissance. 

when we turn to private buildings in varied forms, we find the same law 
in ill their parts, in general and in detail. A part added or prefixed 
to the principal mass must accord with that in its proportions, The up- 
per story of Pitti Palace at Florence is similar to the entire building 
(half as long and half as high); projecting porticoes of Villa Rotonda 
repeat the form of the building, etc.: (Fig. 8), 

68, Subdivision of Facade, ° 

This rule for subdivision of the facade was first made in Florence; as 
the string-course is to that Story, so is the entaklature to the palace. 
This principle was first applied on the Strozzi Palace (Fig. 67) with great 
Success.’ The entire height is divided in three nearly equal parts. tach 


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oa: ARCEITECTURAL COMPCSITION,: 

of the two lower stories terminates with a belt-course, which with the 
course of ashlar next beneath, occupies one-eight part of the height of 

the story. Corresponding to this and crowning all three stories, the en- 
tablature has three times the height of a belt course, and with its frieze 
is one-cight of the total height.: The same is true of the Piccolomini 
Palace at Siena.: On the Géndi Palace at Florence, the lower story is char- 
acterized as a substructure by a bolder rustication, and the entablature 
is made in proportion to the two upper stories by having twice the height 


of a telt—course.’ 

This is also the subdivision of most Roman palaces. Y The string-course, 
that crowns the lower story and marks it a substructure, Lears the same 
mwoportion to this, as does the entaklature to the remainder of the fa 
cade (1 to 12 on the Negroni Palace).: The simplicity and decision that 
distinguish Florentine are;wanting in these facades.; The Farnese Palace 
is also effective , for it follows the simple division of the Strozzi Pal- 
ace and ends with an entablature in proportion to the whole as the string- 
courses and tands are to the separate stories. The entablature has again 
thrice the ehight of belt-course, if vertical heights are not compared 
with each other, but actual distances tetween upper and lower edges are 
taken, the dimensions that would te least fore-shortened in perspective. | 

70. architraves of Doors and windows. - 

Rules for architraves of doors and windows exist, and are to be refer- 
red to the antique.: When a window opening is higher than wide, an enclos- 
ing architrave of uniform width is unpleasing.’ This absurdity is more 
apparent for wide architraves or narrow openings, than for narrow archi- 
traves or openings wider than high. Architraves of openings having great- 
er height than width require an extension above or below, or even both,’ 
to make the external and internal outlines Similar. For rectangylar open- 
ings wider than high, there is oppurtunity to widen the enclosing frame 
at the sides (Fig. 68).: As the cell of the antique temple was surround- 
ed by columns and their entablatures, making the external outline similar 
to the internal, so is the same true 6or Renaissance windows and portals. | 
when a simple window architrave rests directly on a string-course, this 
participates in the treatment of the enclosing member, and there usually 
exists harmony of inner and outer Outlines. (Window of Massini Palace 
at Rome). 

breadth and height of enclosigg members are usually arranged merely in 
accordance with diagonals of the Opening. This is the case if pilasters 
or half columns are also added to the architrave of uniform width, as on 
Bartolini (Fig. 69) and Pandolfini (Fig. 6£) Palaces, etc., in accordance 


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64,° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
with the shrines in the Pantheon.: Peruzzi and Vignola generally employ- 
ed these diagonals for architraves of doorways, although a base like that 
of the window was there impracticable.: If the breadth of the enclosing 
nember is one third the width of the door, the lintel with its cap is made 
one-third the clear height of the doorway (Figs. 71, 72) or if the open- 
ing of the doorway is twice as high as wide, the height of the lintel is 
twice the width of the architrave.. 

71.: wall Openings and Surfaces.: 

Proportions of wall surfeces enclosing an opening in the wall are of 
special importance. Proportions are most clearly shown if round-—arched 
window openings are enlarged to rectangular form and diagonals are yikes, 
Bither the diagonals of two adjacent windows intersect telow upper — 
ing line of wall surfaces (Fig. 73), or they intersect the upper nate 
of the wall space vertically above sides of adjacent openings. (Fig.: 74) 
In the first, the wall surface is so divided by the exes of the piers, 
that it is a proportionally uniform enclosing member; in the second, the 
entire mass of wall surrounds the opening with proportionally uniform width, 

The first method is used in the Pitti Palace in Florence (Fig. 78) and 
with more or less accuracy ty most Roman palaces with predominating wall 
surfaces, especially Bartolini and Pandolfini Palaces at Florence (Figs. 
69 and 70) The second system is retained in Riccardi, Strozzi, Gondi, 
and Guadigni palaces. (Figs. 75, 79).. If width of the pier equals width 
of the window, then is the wall atove equal to height of windows (upper 
story of Strozzi Palace).: If piers are narrower than openings, as on the 
Guadini Palace, height of the wall above crown of arches is also in the 
same proportion lower than windows.’ In this example, the first harmony 
is also produced.: That the plain wall surface between and above windows 
must have equal widths is to be referred to the first system of harmony 
and it is true if height of the windows is twice their width (Pitti, Bar- 
tolini and Pandolfini Palaces), 

?@.: Arrangement of Pilasters and Columns. 

The same conditions are required in subdivision of facades ky orders 
of pilasters.: Pedestal of the pilaster is most intimately related to ped- 
estal of the window beside it. They either form two figures similar to 
each other, or the pilaster order encloses the window at Sides and above 
in accordance with its diagonals and at proportionally equal distances, 
thus taking part in the enclosure. Examples of the first are given on 
Rucellai Palace by Alberti (Fig.- 77), lower story of Farnesia (Fig. 78) 
and Stoppani Palace, as well as Porto Palace in Vicenza; examples of the 
other kind, ky upper story of Garnesia (Fig. 7€), court facade of Farnese - 


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ast « soneht0e0s ¢ ad. rel shiners: ssanscsueite dgiw anniede: ha re 


pas ‘y 
<4 as 


85. ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

Palace (Fig.: 80), and principal story of Ossoli Palace, all ty Peruzzi.: 
The harmony of the window and the pedestals of pilasters or columns, in 
geometrical similarity, is carried out Ly liichael Angelo (Palace of the 
Senators), by Galeasso Alessi, Sansovine, and Palladio, and the princi- 

ple is oteyed, that the two supports must be of forms as different as pos- 
sible. Moulded window jambs are contrasted with plain pilasters, and those 
with half columns, Hermes figures or rusticated columns.’ The early Vene- 
tian Renaissance also affords beautiful examples (Scuola di 8. Marco). 

The same proportions also determine the arrangement of pilasters and 
columns combined with arcades. As on Theater of Marcellus and on Roman 
triumphal arches, the pair of columns or pilasters should enclose the same 
figure as the pair of piers (arcades by Peruzzi and ty Palladio, Fig.81, 
etc.’) To this harmony is due the harmonious effect of Palladio's basil- 
ica at Vicenza, in spite of its ungraceful wide arrangement (Fig. 82); 
the small columns have here a treatment of their bases with an analogy 
to pedestals of principal order. 

.. ?a.; Division of wall Surfaces, 

The subdivision of surfaces of walls also requires obedience to the law, 
that forms of parts must correspojd to that of the whole.’ This is espec- 
ially true of that principal portion of the wall surfaces made prominent 
by size or ornamentation.: This is generally found in Fompeian wall paint- 
ings; it is continued by the Renaissance and is generally employed in the 
Rococo style.; Examples are shown in the prindipalapartment of the Mas— 
simi Palace (Fig.:83), halls of the Palace of Caprarola, and in assembly 
Hall of Grand Council in Doge's Palace at Venice. A very common arrange- 
ment is to place the door in one wall near an angle, thus taking as much 
from length of the wall as the wainscoting does from its height. 

The same is true for facades, if windows form groups or divisions of 
different widths.’ On Palace del Consiglio at Padua, the central group 
of windows of the upper story is similar to the main portion and to the 
entire facade, and on Sapienza at Naples, the loggia is similar to the 
whole. The facade of San Lazzaro in Venice may serve as an example of 
a design in the Barocco style (Figs.: 84, 85).- 

In panelling the leaves of doors, such forms are preferred as corres» 
to that of the entire door, and they are surrounded by mouldings that im- 
itate the mouldings of the architrave (Doorway of the Vatican, etc.) 1 
is especially the case in Rococo. 

74," arrangement in Detail. 

Subdivision of details likewise obeys the law of analogy. Enclosures 

of windows with pediments are Structurally treated in accordance with the 


| ) 168 
+‘ Pee slince edt to atte LS8dna, japiith bud edt tc vgoisne 
$f yd SenSisroHOLE nied tdgted sae Hotsoalorg tells uwieldstcs alsa 
tea as ici Sats Pts “Myton San td a6o5 ewisldsias 6d¢ ep seati yosn 2d 

(OS PPPfeb10 wobaiw HF AE g fei etat 94 wobmiw to emis idatae seob 
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p ae! “bnogse1iso ent * "tbr iSbali? Fo Hoe osne, aeaid idgie ob bone etd 
ee.) ereii (Sot 2 baa a og :s tts (26 -.529) sec ist ‘Fatlooss a, 0. enoittoqorg aa 

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et sae OH to surt ylessifkotggs et aid? shsos eid to sobaisues @33 to tnhuied 
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petsdaun o1itas af“Besesiqxs soizts1 ot aasi yiiasiugog tiedt ewo bas eno? 
ie POE? Ph) ‘tonto dope dfiw etisy inesstiib tc yaomtsd gailiavetg of mane 
. > |, Rote ogoty esse ent ered (78 2°) avosds od? dteened atedmen is lunnk 
i (} gk tee tito edd th .edinted edd ov eve tideus base eseist edd ob as , cf o¢ 
i abate alae ai ecidoutsed ‘esiogs? owt end evetiindors els 
“ot eed nostey to sgted od? ,omsteddesae cited a'elomgtV al .dsbiw of 
geits as parton Lia & > 2.) oftex & 8t désened eveisidow bas eseizt ent 
wot: Ate : “TY nmufoo to tyted of evarsidors to adgied to 
it edt ‘te avosde ont , (86: ar) eiris ide sus ot 


66, ° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION.. 

analogy of the building.: Entablatures of the windows correspond to the 

main entablature, their projection and height being proportioned by it.: 

As many times as the entablature goes into height of facade, just as many 
does entablature of window go into height of the window order (Fig.- 70) 
Cornice and frieze of Pandolfini Palace go eight times into the total height, 
and entablatures of the windows repeat all members of the main entabla- 
ture. and go eight times into height of window order. The correspond- 

ing proportions on Bartolini Palace (Fig.:69) are 1to §& and 1 to 7. where 
the ground story is a sulstructure, the entablature corresponds to the 

height of the remainder, of the facade. This is approximately true of Ror. » 4. 


Focus 


man palaces of several stories,: If the height of thé"window’order is-one-~ -. 
third height of facade, its entablature is one-third height of the main 
entablature (Sciarra and Negroni Palaces at Rome).- On facades with or- 
ders of pilasters or columns, their entablatures control the lintels of 
the windows, if these do not take the place of the main entablature. ( 
Pig. 78),° 4 

75.° Profiles and Decorations.: 

Profiles also exhibit an endeavor to bring smaller parts into harmony 
with greater.. The crowning cornice and the bed mouldings under it, to- 
gether with the frieze beneath form a Broup, repeated in the profile of 
the architrave (in its upper portion or its entirety). Peruzzi and Vig- 
nola prefer to follow this mode of subdivision and to arrange the parts 
of the architrave in a continually diminishing series (Fig. €¢). The har- 
mony between profiles of capitals and of entablatures in the antique was 
again adopted.: Height and projection of the bands are proportional to 
each other, and ornamentation of necking of pilasters is analogous to de- 
corations of frieze. Rosettes on necking of the column corresrcond to the 
intermittent ornamentation of the triglyph-frieze, and the foliage of the 
capital, to a frieze covered by foliage.- Beautiful examples are found 
in the early Venetian Renaissance, the Orders of Alberti,Bramante, etc.: 
The Orders of Vignola and of Palladio are well known in innumerable edi- 
tions and owe their popularity less to ratios expressed in entire numbers, 
than to prevailing harmony of different parts with each other.’ 

Annular members beneath the abacus (Flg. 87) have the same proportion 
to 1t, as do the frieze and architrave to the cornice. At-the offset in 
the architrave the two fascias harmonize in their equal ratios of depth 
to wiath.: In Vignola's Doric entablature, the height of geison has to 
the frieze and architrave beneath it a ratio ( 1: 4.5) similar to that 
‘ Citas Core to height of column Sab 4). For Vignola's Ton- 

Tg.: 88), the abacus of the volutes, the architrave mould- 


ange ei a ea Mi ae Oo 
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tide int _.ywéneo dict eis sot {S9EE beth) eonetolt to idvedin’s3 
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kit OF bedeutbs ed teum ‘agosde {ik" sabvex edd ddie geibse ryicsh hess 
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pe. | seed ond Yo mitgi” gedd benissdo. eer yse aide 31 .@atol isaoisiogerg gat 
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i shoiteq o¢tad eupaid edd to sebt tas ad¢ abatt 
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al 
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67,° ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION.. 

ing, and the geison of the entablature, are supported by menmkers of ogee 
section and of relatively equal heights.: In Vignola's Corinthian Order 
the geison covers the rest of the entatlature (1: 6) as the abacus cov- 
ers the bell of the capital (1: 6), and approximately as the entabl ature 
is to the column (1: 5). This law extends te subdivision of the orna- 
mentation.’ The acanthus leaf is divided into distinct parts and these 
are likewise subdivided into lotes of similar form.’ Arabesque ornament- 
ation repeats the continuous leading forms in the interlaced delicate e- 
. lements.: etc.: 

7é. German Renaissance. 

It is not necessary to trace this principle in the remaining architect- 
ural styles.: The German Renaissance is characterized by rich combinations 
of ditferent forms more than ty elegant proportions.’ On the remarkaktle 
facade of Otto-Heinrichs-ban in the Castle of Heidelburg (FIg.: 89), strict 
harmony of proportion Letween double windows and pilaster-order occurs, 
with all its diversity in form, and on the characteristic old Rathans in 
aurich, depressed forms of windows and wall surfaces harmonize with, the, asses 
whole ( Fig.: 90).: , 

) 77,° Statements of alberti.: 

If we review the Renaissance, the question arises, whether the archi- 
tects of that period did not clearly state that law, so faithfully obey- 
ed in practice.: As Vitruvius is witness for antiquity, so is Leo Battis- 
ta Alberti of Florence (died 1272) for the 15th century.: This architect 
was the scientific founder of the Renaissance in Italy and expressed the 
leading idea in another manner, thfough easily intelligble.: The begin- 
ning of his work "De Re Edificatoria" is a chapter on "Lineamenta".: This 
reguires parts of the structure to correspond to each other in angles and 
lines, which is to be attained by establishing angles and lines of fixed 
direction and combinations.: Book VI, Chap.f, gives a descripticn of @ 
good design ending with the words: "All things must be adjusted to fix- 
ed angles ty parallel lines".. (alterti's facade of Rucellai Palace, Fig.. 
77),- Lines and angles drawn Leforehand are therefore a means of obtain- 
ing proportional forms,. In this way was obtained that "Rythm of the mass- 
es," in which Burckhardt, most thoroughly acquainted with the Renaissance 
finds the art idea of the Cinque Cento period.: 

78,: architecture of Modern Period.. 

If we direct our attention to masterpieces of modern architecture, these 
also confirm what we found in the Antique and traced through the Medi ae- 

, val period,- We mention the facades of Main Guard-House and of Museum at 
Berlin, both ty Schinkel (Fig.: 91), Old Pinacothek and Propyleum in Mun- 


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er hewkgnos ox sixeq to atdyled bie addbiw TE (ehepee ® 

he ney pr idde yess sdf bits .seoneveliih fseiy seve gem ingorse 78 
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seine “etentiredue BE tofvivager tied? brs” ade dose of Jdgtod pad ak 
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oe me, fe ; i “a sansa ERTS Yo ytoed? OR 
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ia * 


6&.° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
ich by Klenze (Fig.: 92), leaving an analysis of these buildings to the 
reader. In the last example, two systems of similarity are to be disting- 
uished; the upper stories of the towers are treated similarly to the en- 
trance portico, and the doorways are analgous to the entire towers.: The 
rule is so evident and so general, that in innumerable modern residences, 
facades are subdivided according to similarity of forms. 4 group of wine 
dows or a richly treated portion of the facade usually repeats the main 
form, the form of a window corresponds to the portion of the tacade to 
which it Lelongs, etce.: By a correct feeling, in framing copper plate en- 
gravings, etc. margins on the ends are made wider than those on the sid- 
es, or in ornamentation of title-pages, the decoration encloses a form 
Similar to that of the entire page.: 

Chapter VI. Influence of Perspective upon Proportions. 

79,° Perspective. 

The dimensions of a tuilding change their respective ratios in perspec- 
tive according to the point of view.: Therefore fixed numerical ratios 
between all three space dimensions of the object can never be determined 
at once by the eye, though the harmony of a building is not expressed in 
its geometrical projections alone, but perspective as well. This oppos- 
es the assumption that harmony depends on simple numerical ratios and 
confirms the theory of analogy and similarity of forms.: These also oc- 
cur in the foreshortened view.: Since this is a comparison of forms, which 
,»de in the same or in parallel planes, these parallel dimensions are fore- 
shortened equally within certain limits. In greater foreshortening of 
a facade, if widths and heights of parts are compared, the eye no long- 
er recognizes even great differences, and the perspective view then ex- 
hibits approximate similarity of the parts to the whole, which does not 
in reality exist.: The facade then possesses harmony when foreshortened, 
which is wanting in a front view, a phenomenon not infrequently observed. : 
Vertical divisions are least changed in perspective; ratios of divisions 
in the height to each other, and their repetition in subordinate members 
appear most plainly in strongly foreshortened facades. : 

QO. Theory of Similarity.: : 

since all objects may appear in perspective, a glance at perspective 
from the stand-point of the theory of Similarity may be in place.: Two 
general and well known phenomena are important: 

1.; A uniform series of equal intervals changes into a series of con- 
tinually decreasing intervals, : 

e.. Eimilar objects, repeated beyond each other and Similarly located, 
are geometrically similar forms. : 


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gi: ARCHITECTURAL CChPCSITION.: 

The Leauty of the unifrom series is generally based on this property 
of its perspective appearance, when the divisions are so arranged, that 
approximately a: b :: b: ¢::d, etc., (Double ratio of New Geometry).: 
4ll other series, like those in periods or groups; do not possess this © 
beauty; for relations of two successive parts are confused in perspecti- 
ve.: Hence monumental art always prefers a series uniformly continued in 
a straight or curved line.: 4n important part is played in interiors, where 
these continued equal intervals exist in connection with a repetition of 
the cross section of the room in continually lessening dimensions.’ Space 
effect of a passage between columns, a vaulted hall, or the interior of 
a church, is more imposing, the further these repetitions of Similar fig- 
ures are continued.: It is conceivable that our eyes have become so ac- 
customed to regard equal figures as nearly similar, that even if a fig- 
ure be repeated at an actually reduced scale, this agreement is at once 
recognized and an impression of harmony thereby created.: 

Final Considerations. 
61.: Proportions in-Crganic Nature. : 

“hen such a law is manifested in diversity of appearance, one must seek 
its basis.: Let us attempt to penetrate further intc the mystery. a pro- 
minent writer on Esthetics has said: "Sculpture is an imitation of human, 
and architecture is an imitation of Plant forms." Inorganic nature sup- 
plies geometrical elements, and organic nature affords in plants, espec- 
ially in the growth of trees, a model or a repetition of the primary form 
an the individual parts, the law of similarity and proportion. The en- 


[@)) 


tire form of the tree reappears in the branch; it even frequently appears 
in the form of the leaf or of the fruit.: This repetition in plants re- 
sults from growth, the first delicate twigs increasing to boughs and the 
germ becoming a complete organism.’ The completed building may Le termed 
an organism.: The whole grows out of a typical form and develops into 
humerous variations, : 

but another reason for a pleasing effect is based on the activity of 
the mind and consists in composing an image of the whole from views at 
different stand-points, The simpler the relation of the parts to each 
other, and the more frequently they are repeated, the more readily and 
willingly does the eye follow the lines, and the more easily is the in- 
ternal intellectual image constructed.: kere similarity of form without 
variations and contrasts are justly found monotonous and wearisome. This 
requires this law to be supplemented by contrast, and contrast is to be 
strengthened by proportion. Con*t.ast without harmony is disturbing and 
only appears irritating or even ridiculous.: 


er? Io, ¢neweybut oiverdiies of? Yo trad omen sit jon al 
iin pjebaes to sudo edd beaad af doidw’ ao 
t ak neve aescely Hoitw bas ,ysiiaebs eacved Sotinsy doirtw 
| mydia gsinyooes ef Casgaade bas ydiewvib ett yd 
ove netasipsart ai Ysommd. tot bedizoaasy exe’ eolvt mliats 
woe mt fy efft edsngiae of neceaesqxe: beh“ hoitqoomoo Nommao - 
a be | edt $0 vgolenn os ylqeia et ei toe! aiota: mx: (nontel -.mrot at 
f 40% 2 105 Fe Fo oly of -.avivwsctV qi“Beveea as .slodw ade 
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; oF ber teu is od vent dokiw p40 Lariat obvedtas vtalves: tedy o¢tuaer soub 
i tL See | 0s babe Qadeinpad ‘tte 
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aa meats se, cay a Semen Le peeec tie! 5) ty | 


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Tn: ARCHITECTURAL COMP OSITICN.- 
82.: Harmony.’ : 

The esthetic judgement of the eye is satisfied by Similarity in variety.: 
Is not the same true of the esthetic judgement of the ear? what is rhyne, 
on which is Lased the charm of modern poetry, but a similarity of sound, 
which cannot tecome identity, and which pleases even in its complications 
by its diversity and changes? ie recognize rhyme in architecture as well.: 
Similar rules are prescribed for harmony in music.: It is everywhere a 
common conception and expression to designate the beautiful in sound and 
in form.: Harmony in architecture is simply an analogy of the parts to 
the whole, as stated ty Vitruvius. No rule of art compensates for lack 
of genius. Diligent use of the rhyming dictionary never made a poet; but 
a poet must carefully observe the rules of rhyme.: Thus, knowledge of the 
law laid down here will never make an architect. But it will aid talent 
to shorten the course of experiment and to guard it from error. It may 
be termed a proper limit within which genius must work, in order to pro 
duce results that satisfy esthetic feeling and which may be justified to 
an inquiring mind.- 


is Ae hid hoy > ry eee ses! & ’ , 
i Let veh \ é vu i ty x " ‘ 
, , lt } ee 


Pag as pps lige. ea , , rt 
Aeys DMAGHTOE SHE WO MOTARA ATL uOLatvrd 
i a bb atoalit wearaunin’ toate Se ae 
, ts toneP 86: | 
ade ~rosat no sant ed taum cae rig ded 1 note by it al dwoda: eer tf 
yr) 8 lor etemigad émon oft eved. yea diod salt | qpath Lind ens to ma bie yD las 


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rae yest eee ylisinem saum ad \sebl aid aineaqiqyt,. : te lia ai suaeiit he tg tsqed 
i a = bain ai agen. Ieteaey amis dtit ..e.dounes. gritag edt Yo seat lagtoa tq 
- |. sedoteda ed exédw ,baia eid to gode xxqw wads begod yriwach efd eedsn ef 
Bas uh ie ~ts.,goltsvele bas malg at yaibliud ef to apiago ity Bead | ihom ers mz 
POC ttetab ata lg 200Lt aa wtbelang betelquos edt ai te Braybosite ob iekeed 
Be 2s eo laque® yods, wyatblind ed? to. Modeivibdue (scwdins eiy dag Grol edt exte 
7 bas Isnsetxe edd sididxe doidw ,enottosa bos BHOh: fave te awety ode Pavan 
“Wid anibecetq edT -.dteq al notteuttaneo edz bas APWioesisow Lanvin 
a ie a “sattblind edd to myteeb one gait loutaco solgtoninzg eit eatadnos. poked © 
cee, x ‘Rotjoennoo aif bas tneaegnoiw oinepio ef! a1 seviouasde taetiasm sotdw- 
ae iszeneg eae galtebianon sot wetv to atniog edT, | .adued @fersaer ett to 
Sor, - theente “. Of Wor ots aeteise) gotbasl.att haunt @i fotiw ao ,ahinet 
eee ihe ae Agiaed 40% ATL resaed0 
RE in) Bair ok 20h ROT ee 
| Tete 9 ede sainuiies anibiind od ts soasdroque bas egogimg dT 
aes to. ‘tedauar adt ,bevebianos vest? a9 taum eagdT edneoeringst soe 98 


A - aabb Lind odd: ‘so? Mette to ebes esiodo hae ‘sDexit ed anchegeaih itedy bus 
i, ne c ale’ Yana afhemetiupes Isaoe re to. bre ebeen iscol ialeeqa tc duemsiade 4 
. enolingiail bebbs om ssh esedd of .otutourte ons atlcpieah ehacets oa 
pi) “vauiteiatt bas Migoursesoo lo abou edt yléanupett ,ariblind 402 yanom te 
¢ iaiy a. ulisvay eis enoitibnos dove [fh ote ettegotiages vroreiate Bie dake! 
BW jest  tgideb ede to ated tng ed} w10T, bas quanagorg's, mE bee bignes 
Abe | berebtanos od ot wéniog Lis to sent welo s nietde of ywaaeoon ato oi. 

ie ae Ht Salata sZo1g edt mort bea into ad mob Lee Y1ey feo aia? ga isasumoo grote 


_ wteety duow edt to seeoowa odd -dguod! avidoeieb el lereney ai fotin .doote 
00 ataor ayew is getblind ens 49% Udelidianogead . * etae qoyu abisdeb vi 
 Bluode oi om sis’ e a ¢2 tt encid eid Baveiost od dine tae tidots et) 
cia od dud .oumbyjotg eds gaiweqaty ci fesq ex8d Od Yovesbas oxcterers 
 m@ib tuo datos qm od dedf oe ,enolsibaco edt to egbetwon ds taelo giside 
prey Ylyeqotg blvode eth eimecsalgpe ear evonges hae egolds aucegegas vhs 
aed ed ylno- [Liw moksengleer efi “beset ed ‘og seoneupesrd: “mod¥ Wammki ” 
* nclacnmal ed fis - sometEe: eanes}O83 any a Lisi utube ode nariw hed? 


v j 


Me 


ca i ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION.. 
GIVISION I1I.: DESIGN OF THE BUILDING. : 
by Professor Heinrich wagner.: 
_83,.: General.: 

It was shown in Division I that external form must be based on inter- 
nal organism of the building, that both may have the most intimate rela- 
tion to each other.: In the primary ideas of the design, they cannot be 
separated.’ When the artist represents his idea, he must mentally see the 
principal lines of the entire structure. With this general image in mind, 
he makes the drawing board the work shop of his mind, where he sketches 
in its main lines the design of the building in plan and elevation, af- 
terwards embodying it in the completed project.: The floor plans deter- 
mine the form and the internal subdivision of the building; they supple- 
ment the views, elevations, and sections, which exhibit the external and 
internal architecture, and the construction in part.: The preceding Div- 
ision contains the principles controlling the design of the building, 
which manifest themselves in the organic arrangement and the connection 
of its separate parts.’ The points of view for considering the general 
design, on which is: based its.leading features, are now to be stated.: 

Chapter 1.: Data for Design.: 
64,.: Programme.: 

The purpose and importance of the building determine the general and 
space requirements.: These must be first considered, the number of rooms 
and their dimensions be fixed, and choice made of site for the building. 
4A statement of special local needs and of personal requirements must al- 
so precede designing the structure. To these data are added limitations 
of money for building, frequently the mode of constructicm and finishing, 
legal and statutory requirements, etc. All such conditions are usually 
comprised in a programme and form the primary data of the design. : 

It is necessary to obtain a clear idea of all points to ke considered 
before commencing.’ This can very seldom be obtained from the programme 
alone, which is generally defective,though the success of the work great- 
ly depends upon this.’ Responsibility for the building always rests on 
the architect, and he recieves the blame if it be a failure. ke should 
therefore endeavor to take part in preparing the programme. but he must 
obtain clear knowledge of the conditions, so that he may point out dis- 
advantageous things and improve the requirements; he should properly guard 
himself from consequences to be feared.: His resignation will only be ten- 
tered when the requirements of the programme cannot at all te harmonized 


« 


an iueoa “ewéotate eft tot pis 0 inaoites 3 Adin 
at 10008 ‘nt beunerse od sie tenure ti ‘SOgtg Atl of betgsbs ylinew 
Pe Git cx. temo ed? -.tE mwe to viaquooo of ote ‘odw esodt ic aedaiw ed? 
eins bis. aotelv ald of bisq ed of ai noltnetie evotewsis bas ynthtind 
ri. ‘ME bseoowe ylisues flin toetidors” Ssoneiteqxe edd to Litda ed? -.enoke 
ae: gon ed eonen{tai ain 32 , eames eace Hi agisivoittib ede 3eivioa yizeqorg 
, f -O1g edt gdionegltat arotest seed tT: _isitine nedt evomar of tretoftica 
2 nedt bos ,syctblivd to ebaid foe Tt Lib aid sat yino nevis ed aso samsTy 
eed evitooies BS 9% aldensiiuoet ened? asoitedaavorio oc anibtoode (Loren 
rein: ‘AS Yo Soneselaes of? -.betate ylbiaia ood ed of mad? tot as 5 SuaBy God 33 
Breit isaatiad edt Raises tos et eldgeneceitn i esoietedt ai Igedide imepell ctas 
hea 7. edneme tings! eoaqge  .a@ 
Este yodT box? yltssrroont yLleuas ons asidoxg ond 10 ainewextsper eo8qé ‘ 
f ae ~egbut, efos{ ylisveuw T80K9 qd : bedsws ‘tee 7879 es bedstiebay asdte aie A 
- sbiivd edt eabeea eit dev 2098 Execs ud beitiespos Udoetisy ti aeve inem 
| Yeu Aolaestoie edz to sgbalwoux aledit dtiw ancets 4 Afiist of ab wat 
Re i «blind betelquoa ent ution of ting tud gh insab a bas fersbay ot ‘elds ‘od 
a oe amooy ode dedd anevessih neds reso add ons vise qgs ative’ ati {fiw gal 
Picts eg chet) fl Baoiacen ib bts tedava tied? dusond SHSM 90d 19 “ege L ood Sts 
_Brogses202, Yon cb sacuegce rs bag eoneupen iiels ssdé bas ,wid yd sedizoa 
inl Sade tae Bae anotsetoeagxe mG aif OF son patho ond to anottibceg ena ot 
ch ee jbevree ed 0! enogiug edgy yd Sexi? ylieido ess edneaetiang eesd? : ae 


ce ate 


haial Boog 8 ed oF ti git iaeen ,ldeiisva veroa edt 19 bare eh qoddag4 vont - 
; ibe 7 ‘erotereds f enna Tyo" end 26 easel tat tie sfT pine lsotzonses 
€ sit pas tee .eonsltogmi Jsesy 


ul | ‘hafblivd to e2ig -.38 
wtebierco uliseyery ton ses to $38 otis s to eolods ads ai asitivotttid 
“yfines etom ed seoqug edt toi ydilidsiise to meitaeup edt “tt meve be | 
Bs ge e918. snclgnexrh wisyagoen ‘edt 267 - EMdétthage redto ytim msdd bebfosb- oe 
a it ounsapheon onimexe od et tragxe tm to wen edt bedeaivae~iebny cette 
es “goo! ast ‘agin gonsbioess ai bre Jisjeb ni bas fevemen al edia gitiblivd 
oy '§Mivig to (tilidiewog edd ashiaego of .wacignesth hme sexe ,etwina mois 
my 1) waitttetde to ottapet ¢ a antgts tie ‘to Moisavol fit ws ath lied edz 
ee0 isdso gol llitive q0t 2s ilew ea .tie to asedeq eet? bas gritdpel boog > E 
Tet “amo seen eaggt _-ftotaa0 bas ,gitied~ilew ,ifisad 26% ascsquooo ef? fo, ; 
| 12 ue eis to eaiaio eds sbiosb so atts pelea dows to aan om 


St ae 


’ eee 


a J * . o> . d f: ie ao ‘ fa: 
i P - ae bipear phoee2 ise 
wa indi is e's, b ohia ting pS Ot Rep ete ae 


— 


tie.” ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
with a rational design for the structure.: Even if the building be pri- 
narily adepted to its purpose, it must also be arranged in accordance with 
the wishes of those who are to occupy or own it.: The owner pays for the 
pbuilding, and therefore attention is to be paid to his wishes and deci- 
sions.: The skill of the experienced architect wili usually succeed in 
properly solving the difficulties in some manner, if his influence be not 
sufficient to remove them entirely.” These factors influencing the pro- 
gramme can be given only for the different kinds of buildings, and then 
merely according to circumstances.’ These requirements are as defective 
if too vague as for them to be too rigidly stated.: The assistance of an 
intzlligent architect is therefore indispensable in arranging the prdogram.: 
85.: Space Requirements.: 

Space requirements of the problem are usually incorrectly fixed.: They 
are often underrated as over estimated.’ The owner usually lacks judge- 
ment even if perfectly acquainted by experience with the needs the kuiid- 
ing is to fulfil. Persons with little knowledge of the profession may 
be able to understand a drawing, but only in using the completed build- 
ing will its faults appear, and the owner then discovers that the rooms 
are too large or too small, though their number and dimensions were pre- 
scribed by him, and that their sequence and arrangement do not correspond 
to the conditions of the problem, nor to his own expectations and wish- | 
es.' These requirements are chiefly fixed by the purpose to be served. 
They further depend on the money available, assuming it to be a sood and 
economical design.: Their influence on the programme is therefore of 
great importance.’ 

8é,: site of Building.: 

Difficulties in the choice of a site are often not properly consider- 
ed, even if the question of suitability for the purpose be more easily 
decided than many other conditions.: Yet the necessary dimensions are 
often under-estimated.. The duty of an expert is to examine the proposed 
building site in general and in detail, and in accordance with its loca- 
tion, nature, area and dimensions, to consider the possibility of giving 
the building a fit location, of enlarging it if required, of obtaining 
good lighting and free access of air, as well as for fulfilling other needs 
of the occupants for health, well-being, and comfort.: These questions 
are often of such importance that they decide the choive of site.: But 
for other buildings, the point of view may Le of an esthetic nature, re- 
quiring from the artistic stand-point that the external architecture may 
produce a striking, graceful or monumental effect.- 


a | ots qe8 of uibtidt bas ,eldiaeaq so eagson yese es Yo ti anivew dite 
is Yo Beonedruseth hae slteud wort ae bie galon moti tat fh 
‘ | re abot 
! ares; ik 1A Viana | :.asbneu tat eer, “38 f 
at aoe "0 ae outer ast oF. paniunten ak Pere ode to not teinexe fe ef daze 

tak Yo. ei tilitedog ‘bas hawggy edt af tatew To ecnelaixe ,aoltveutia Agi 


7. ‘ i t eve, 4 , i ety Licy 


angen edd bie seeongtiol bite tedew jetigge wedat od of anotivsceng ‘TAsO hae 


an ed taus ‘gbaiw Briligvery to asoetio erg. (etoie ea eis. no bos allid ao 
es odds %d bie sdidwee eis ys gridsie a ‘Yo! Wt Lid taeog ai? |: dhoieae belies va 


Die patie: eth | fe 3 Wie “beteb laps 62 cals teva soleup 
Baa: ie ee . gntb lied 49 Jooga ‘bas eosi? -.98 
fo vlog beads no baageb: itinad exutoutie edd: to foeqas bas roitace 


| tbLind ond oY wolstetnetto ao ps Tlew as agatbavorwe brs. deotaun and 


ae nam | fizeteso ca Taseaey | at bonotinen ered af dud ,epntolind te 
“Ui edarnenda ledmewiidoa bus araseer as Jeu, ,aidetovet teow ai fooltuo nige 


2) yftta edt to Seed aor? ‘x0 Tua sane eno temaue ‘yttavh teds hatosido ef tf 
ie (seaiianua to dost tot Bebiove od ot ef emsa0gKe ated tion Udgetth ofinw 
Wy Lbs ida 

eg Ylinues eidisibaes fanol tedJo bas #gcab lind tases tbs hes ateease 
_etedw axova eldeteterg oatwredto. Era gat Lind odd to floddsool edd saex 


nest cage Sigs 


roy “sve i ee i 


 MEbnooss | ‘isto as seed: doie olaaliek SAH Se pr bee 
tones ‘to betes ‘bas atil end OF ,wabikedd of gatbiivd edt to yninoge elt 


_sttete veviol atl xo yathifod eft x04 charg edd ebioeh Iliw do tlw Hoi lab 


meget ke Ai. “be thems ad nett taut tedsw to som: sgonietb-10t béetgobs ed of — 
elinx tts insagede ‘bas got to (Ait ye xen ‘te stowed gagm sno: bavotg wol 


an a a 


sor bejus%s yt int ed, tii inftog aldT -.adieg att Io saoe tO | 
th ised vilerenes Agu oid Le dooitue red Fu O8 qitoexth ‘of 39 Lda vac os Ay | 
ca. sa"1WO0 odie odd to yt bag etude ‘edt eldetiseb eonidance iwiena |e 


watiwey, dauooes. ofnt eles of jasd ad nadto. bivow tf ,boed ett 9: aed sito 
Tih of yliosxe gaibtiid odd gaios 3 oon ud: Sao; Jsebigno bite. ascneteto%4 ; 
Eeaeile Vad ot as EO Ao aaie sud, .BeRgMes: ede. fo eiiiog tekde 9% 
| | tmeminon anol eeorepitad ob 


ore Sone 


73,° ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION.: - . 


We, 


Other questions are not technical, concern the suitability of the build- 
ing, but are obly indicated here.: First are convenient roads for access 
to the grounds, connection with streets and waterways, and secondly is 
the opening of the building to business, to the life and traffic of a great 
ity, making it of as easy access as possible, and thirdly, to separate 
it far from noise and manufactories, from bustle and disturbances of all 
kinds. ' . 

87,° Local Influences.: 

First is an examination of the site in reference to its nature, low or 
high situation, existence of water in the ground and possibility of inun- 
dation, which will decide the grade for the building or its lower story, 
and other precautions to Le taken against water and dampness, and the means 
to be adopted for drainage.: Lack of water must often be remedied.: In 
low ground one must beware of marshy earth, of fog and stagnant air, while 
on hills and on the sea shore, the effects of prevailing winds must be 
guarded against.- The possibility of a sinking of the earth and of earth- 


quakes must also be considered, 

88.: Place and Apect of Building.: 

Location and aspect of the structure partly depend on these, partly on 
the outlook and surroundings, as well as on orientation for the building 
or some of its parts.’ This point will be fully treated for certain kinds 
of buildings, but is here mentioned in general. An eastern or southeas- 
tern outlook is most favorable, just as western and southwestern exposures 
are unsuitable. To directly southern outlook, although generally healthy, 
it is objected that during summer one must suffer from heat of the sun, 
while directly northern exposure is to be avoided for lack of sunshine, 
though sometimes desirable. The nature and form of the site, course of 
streets and adjacent buildings, and other local conditions usually pre- 
vent the location of the building as otherwise preferable. Even where 
one has a free hand, it would often be best to take into account various 
preferences and considerations by not facing the building exactly to the 
chief points of the compass, but making such deviation as to make clima- 
tic influences less prominent.: 3 

89,° ARtistic Treatment.: 

‘The degree of artistic treatment to be given to external appearance and 
to internal finish of the building depends on its purpose and rank, then 
upon the many at command,: For the first, the principles of treatment in 
Division I must direct and guide.: Consideration of what is most suitable 
and effective for works of monumental architecture, for ecclesiastical or 
‘secular purposes, or for merely useful buiodings for public or private 


Ww noleanigsat n6- Jaen Ha a tated | vou eer 
ode WE Bebalont ‘etaone, pbraawnsd te bots abit to enotsoeatd 


acer eases Yo rede eit a thats ernie ae.98 avis bas olde 
a Shs deol tate ont. ig tw face eines to idw amt ad Elin autooh tad? aes: 
eda to eonge ont ques Sort iiade one .bediads on aba eldeLiars " 


, ened: -fimigpedo yids ive ve peoule 918 pion urs vases: yore: 
i" ay _ eid Wt oldstiue ae wt oe .ysinlois edd at istredam goiblivd edd ete? 
oe ‘poleivid. nk begeta ybaetia esw ¢h bos ,eldsielerg yilaieae3 rk Bodh lied | 
“to dremdsoett. iwtdéert » bas isitedem gutbiiud sidt te eax Ivtitse gadd fT 
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an ceroteted? ,egbolwond ofttaitye fee7 tuod sha, leizevam yLlisoo ho emudth 
_ etudxot boog edt aad eno @tedy dae ybobivorg yiqms o%6 ebavt eredw. nove 
“Tihew ed bivow gi ,emsoedivots ietmeamunon to dtow s dg kw betsuiin: ef ag 
tot: tad Be lakon ity edt to fw Ybo ta ed of bae noite tebom ox lw ealovexe og 
Ot dtiw nohiemics. vebede déiy sd lati.,v¢ioilqmie' dgiw bealet ed teum eeen 
and wee SoteoF ingen jon od tava seotoies tased ods enedw dadd bas 2809 
ie aaa : Ceti fk NAOMt 
2 ue ee rhitua to seo? golet® ‘08 

Bee 99% 805 i senior add ets vn “uf? gedg exotest tetdo sat 

Bae af teh ease weqgs eaeiT .jnemtneid oltaitw to setkeh edd bra 

. oti sfugqmos fait? of aebi0 «1 “$290 to sismitas edd ai abiwwiedts bas 
oa hol suooxe bre brid wilimis. to agiiblind eb liad ody so}, betiupes aye ) 
She bas Stasd © as modes ed yon .eeonetamuotic edt webay bedoste ylsagoes 
ne ahaa ty de00 Yo tinw edd beoubeb 24 yen seeds mont adldted - -{eupe goinuees 
ene to patbliud 6 Yo saco edt 10 anth Lind ed? to seu bavoty to foot 
ehae: to foot oldye ieq dpoo odd .y {2oertco etom to jseliose eros 10 ond 
may aon Oa gon ei 1 .bawot ylrelinie od yaw gaiblind edd to emi lov [a tog 
9 | a ‘ed yom dont sete edt torlder sud ,amébitud edt yd hetevoo sexe bavery edd 
gan ghitoubeh tedie .gaiblivd eit to eacquug isteoeqa edd s0% desi lity. 
_ éinu edt to alasd eft ebsa ed bivoda iadt ,.o¢@ ,ayawtisse 30998889 


fcevures3ib elderebtanco ytev s batt aw bas batd emse edt to ayaiblind tot 
a et Bitbroses ,I90o Of Boege [ulean to soot etdee to ‘stsxpa teq taco al | 
‘oe bas Mi) sce 10 etom ef gnibliud edt to telg to tmemegnatis edt tedtedw 
es) (1809 odd gitiootte enoivihaos wilto to yidaebaegebat ,tosqnon 


Meed aed-aceitsqmoo eid? ..agnthlivd to taoo edd gniisqmoo zot eobg BS 


: cepa dnd Jispinyal ed gon bivoda 22 fa oe 
k a hen «a0 ; r . Ah s2a6 | / a 


74, : ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : - 
PUrPRePe, must be left to the judgement and imagination of the architect. - 
Diréctions of this kind, afterwards usually included in the programme, 
may be stated only in a very general way with reference to money avail- 
able, and serve as an approximate limit for the amount of artistic treat- 
ment. That design will be best, which produces most with the smallest 
cost.: 
as available funds are limited, one shall not cramp the space of the 
building, but rather limit. architectural treatment by avoiding everything 
unusual. Customary local ideas are almost invariably cheapest.: There- 
fore the building material in the vicinity, so far as suitable for the 
building, i-: generally preferable, and it was already stated in Division 
I thet skilful use of this building material and a truthful treatment of 
it produces a better and more beautiful effect than a more lavish expen- 
diture off costly material without real artistic knowledge, Therefore, 
even where funds are amply provided, and where one has the good fortune 
to be intrusted with a work of monumental architecture, it would be well 
to exercise wise moderation and to be mindful of the principla, that rich- 
ness must be joined with simplicity, light with shade, animation with re- 
pose, and that where the heart rejoices must be not magnificence, -ut har- 
mony. 

90.: Fixing Cost of Building. 

The chief factors that fix expenditure are the volume of space required 
and the degree of artistic treatment.: These appear clearly in the design 
and afterwards in the estimate of cost. In order to first compute the 
sum required for the building, buildings of similar kind and execution, 
recently erected under like circumstances, may be taken a& a basis, and 
assuming equal heights from these may be deduced the unit of cost per square 
foot of ground area of the building, or the cost of a building of one, 
two or more stories; or more correctly, the cost per cubic foot of the 
total volume of the building may be similarly found. It is not so much 
the ground area covered by the building, but rather the area that may be 
utilized for the special purpose of the building, after deducting walls, 
passages, stairways, etc., that should te made the basis of the unit 
price for comparing the cost of buildings. This comparison has been made 
for buildings of the same kind and we find a very considerable difference 
in cost per square or cubic foot of useful space to occur, according to 
whether the arrangement of plan of the building is more or less good and 
compact, independently of other conditions affecting the cost. 

but it should not be understood that dimensions of important and nec- 
essary ante rooms and corridors or thickness of walls should be reduced; 


vf ‘Yo wine? yas Ae Couneesat on ote — pe 
| re gat Leia ‘Sid af doissolmuagos gemelawvmooat of ae 
meme ped Pha rn has elquite sied? yd beniaies ed of ,ecage te tootte 
eet bas ohecs! ed? to solanesxe vetaeny seauec Yileuheug onle ald? «.tnen 
mat ad ($aRO ond sanetont doidw mesuen Latwioetidere yritosiorg vliseup 

 sabagolevet I6Jted 702 sad? adit tetse1g aezty at bexolimes exsd seaet0 


Ss . iy saoo1 te aoidsennoo bas fneusynetie ai efage Yo hind @} witdsoh  .eneytere 
e tent eds dikw betoeanos goied Josteb ald? .gnibited edd to aiweqg Yo bas 


yt batebiance ed iltw agalog wasdT ewe ys8 Fon ote tered st bem we hoe goo” 


SAT .badsolbat @:, enaqe ivteey to simu ed? no gatbited edd to tees gataad 
| eoftq diay adf ynkieqaae vd ooane yoam at bealadse vlgads od yoo bee ema 
/)  -wfotode ai as yatbisud odd at bed-bammeoos encateg to vedaua of ya throogd 
iy she tag tittle qwq raee ois gtiteqnos yd (ote ,elariaeod ,alocdos jae 

3 ) e nl to atlay weise yor Beyolqae ed cela yea Bodtom etd? ode 
eta) Yo aodtetgn fad ‘fe 
hae tdtewes ® “athe amibiiud add Ye sao to fudmethbe whaweos otom 6 td 
}. ae Ste fade 19 gaiin iwoleo. iaieqe edt yf at .sottouber a6 enewiel to vss 


- +18. eda tiguond Sesto ce ved anidzol{ batelgaon need ami sudeeb efy ved . 


3 wehtonane: ae ehldug Gid Klin viberesih deus ofc. euieeatenge lotetoed ides 

» 3qde tipeet Ode bequbowy ead aidT <.gniblind ory Ge gece hetemkeve ede 
| a a | ot bere tenets bas fost inom et watt rowed Yiieows eee fauntoeside te 
,  moiag bexi? $e tromecvaeen ef to. ere cau! ¢ cot sont tome Wtorean i aes 


és 


2 . oW8e OF Ilfw hydeeb of) yrivagerg to aon of! Bet eerstind wea aT Pe | 


q {tke Of Joi? bas \neitoese gnituh teatidew eft y¢ aolekvry we to dad’ , be 
q : ee ¢ff{sreney ei eidt soY toot ai aeooxe You. sanioge ytiwee@ oved on fg 
eee y fie asebi Joest09 uieet od oaueoad tedtle .tMeeeit secws ede yd be 
ae ve ‘eto att mor? eejraio atinieg bas ,ewetw «id Be piIndd. wOLtontenea ait gat 

5. ated <Sttemeyielne evolia ed .yaibiiud to eval « yt beeiee  eawly facts 
B. _ etossidow {eawetnt 10 [saxetre Yo aveqtot: wereetg to. .dolteuviadoo yw! 
a Nes oe fent? bas dnemzeq of somoo ef aec® pebetoegus need bed nats \ oth 


wait doetotz of .ebam ot a nedw ,tuteteo ed otolereds bivod# sedis! 
Nas @egeuch mort Bas gg0o griheorse tot dosotqe? fonlicye eats bong af thee 


4 


\ oy 


%y sth ete s at Yleadt abalt ered. ypeased- mi: ferlatae Yous tyansnetiion) ent 
i _. Bete att ems eels oxsiiwox apne tone ni Madd goisiies 


wis 644 5 @e ib) SB alee! Ae, AEE oy 
A Aa Re sas 
ey as. || 


& AG 
Dea 
iat tt t 
wis 
4a ” 


se “6 douk .etutoutia edd Yo nofivibsue leqedoetidow wefott bas atot at 
i, ty ed eldteiv e7olezed? bae Ienaeixe eavaded ,rertel ed¢ joode eben al ob. 


 Joetidow edt noqu grou! gt emefd Lis bus ,bettetiseet® ob od soem: 


/ weowo orld gatytizon gnivinw ai. toe yibeeteper yd uri tistgoogeoy att sot 
‘ “- ices tgieeh Lentgice: ed? scott eexeeiio wong. ‘set sage iaho.bs ibe ony Lo | 


| Feed 


Psy 


we bal aver ae 


76.: | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
the former are so increased in many forms of ground plans for buildings 
as to inconvenience conaunication in the building, without producing the 
effect of space, to be attained by their simple and centralized arrange- 
ment,: Thies also gradually causes greater extension of the facade and fre- 
quently projecting architectural masses which increase the cost. The in- 
crease here mentioned is often greater than that for better development 
in form and richer architectural subdivision of the structure. Much a- 
do is made about the latter, because external and therefore visible to 
everyone.’ Nothing is said of waste in arrangement and connection of rooms 
and of parts of the building, this defect being connected with the inner 
organism and therefore not apparent.: These points will be considered Ly 
basing cost of the building on the unit of useful space ..s indicated. The 
same end may be simply attained in many cases Ly computing the unit price 
according to number of persons accommadited in the building, as in church- 
es, schools, hospitals, etc., by computing the cost per sitting, per bed, 
etc. This method may also be employed for other units of use.. 

91. Calculation of Cost..: 

But & nore accurate statement of cost of the building, with a possibi- 
lity of increase or reduction, is by the careful calculation of cost af- 
ter the design has been completed, Nothing has so often brought the ar- 
chitectural profession into such discredit with the public as exceeding 
the estimated cost of the building.: This has produced the result thet 
architectrual works usually taken from the architect and transferred to 
contractors, sometimes for a lump sum, or by measurement at fixed pric- 
es.: The owner believes that the cost of preparing the design will te sav- 
ed, that of su jervision by the architect during erection, and that he will 
also have security against any excess in cost. Yet this is generally caus 
ed by the owner himself, either because he forms correct ideas only dur- 
ing the construction,changes his views, and permits changes from the ori- 
ginal plans; or seized by a love of building, he allows enlargements, tet- 
ter construction, or greater richness of external or internal architect- 
ure, than had been expected.: When he comes to payment and final setile- 
ment, he is dissatisfied, and all blame is thrown upon the architect. The 
latter should therefore te careful, when changes are made, to protect hin- 
self in good time against reproach for exceeding cost and from damages 
for his responsibility, by repeatedly and in writing notifying the owner 
of the additional cost for these changes from the original design. 

The architectural profession in Germany here finds itself in a more di- 
fticult. position than in other countries.: Nowhere else are its duties 
so onerous or the demands of its responsibility so great, and yet nowhere 


“MOTT OHOS UNO TEA J Sea RE 
ie ‘edt ‘chedres: We ildions obi 0b Wt , 
| | ; bodtoe fared eft ite beoonas sayatdd O#d of oub Ut 
saad ats pean ere Ze aim on Migs eer 
mbéosup edt ery gH00 ov aniiies ¥ilstese) ak seesitiow wa met) otk... 7 

 «gativel penis betieper eaeth i gad etd to deco to eteabtes edd bus, soil 


"ig a Pee Hest Le  Sobsartioo edd of drow edd 
Vea yeton WS: «noerey ene ode @lleuie etd toxenténee bie teettdews ed? Ss 
Be, sttig eh eepmala a8 10: Todos MOS « yrtiooed tsotidore benistt yLlaoimeb 
Pe ong i Be “fee ridore udboives*s «© dein: ‘gifed dotoarinos be 
4 ha she ay’ paren 6. oun aol 208" Wore to atioaes oved-ism enso datit ag 
a “og Sleds gatbweono yd wideil ylisusos emoaes O¥ad gts ior doidi mk ae 
Be fiosg edd tot bedalidestee eons at-moteus ete PS eden iieg iéaimit 
| | gee of mid 0 bisi at yiub ferom @ .sa0e add 10 sfenitee ody ets yo'rq og 
foe. na abd ‘osat tottvoexe en! gckdes yd dvis og neciol Yate en Bigg, aes nédtiw 
. | bag sede nokteios faltned i tooo od? fedd gut? yinisiwo at HI” Obied wo 
a e . bite yT9awe ont to tnéye Lenoiacs lor ty as evad bluoda foetidowm edd dohte - 
- * epi 0 ed of: ahynonce fsom et @idd sjanteiabtuia wai tiie and to boos ent iat 
Phe: be 
BR . | tilidingedak - anole tallies aonoged soatiders- edd to colfieoq oft 
\. ear add ote gets BGOb wt Ti Wisetogms erom bas “wle0eia yiivoddus aid bie 
: op “eq ben, bra igce Hf ecto edé ef es fteco edt to stenites eff bow watdis 
‘ies ee iv i pigrdo'd, ett qd ebem al saz? edd basland al .eoaervt ak ¥L 
| ae i ted 2 19 foo’ "$i inde iweb Lind ods ad beragey gates: seei edt yo 
ie ie ties ey ots bas mesdoll Mevmesoss ideas. ily tJ eonet? at somite? . 
ne ae a “bas Lad wt Hsnedao att inidted OT baw eised vied? 
ou bets yetg. bas. daha tq efit of bebbe ‘et dow att to coitqginseab essivdos 
Dt) eatweb Wo-beigseo yiteinte ai aids Jedd oa of e64 odw toesifow es 
ae is ig it .anee Sif Gaiwiedio ot avidud adh Prow wit to voletvieque ald 
gairyeds “Fo eaoitonn® iit’ meyolaae edd of bevoveh yleviewloxe e4s zosivess 
. “papier berebianoo gated . soaring Jon exe doasinoxw ed? to bas tofosaties 
a jyatb lind Ye. ae faatetal ) toetifow ed? to yvhsodiue add déiw ehditeg 
ah “studned iors etjine’ ofa, vd yedtes iaeytords add ak bernebavs ob soatéade | 
7m ; aa. 1 toetidors eit ea weltiicacip edi to noste ve 7674 bae ,noteaetotg Ip 
nN, ie sweists at teoot Je .0d betostse at argh otey 
“steauinct edd es lees yar ow ted? .Ynemted af adwine wor. teeqaony on 
Blan yivortie ee Jdaul, om yeds JoY .meugnelion deifyad avo to apitiagg 
| Bie: )) \etemisdas we o¢ e716 ev as ,Fa6%8RO® Odd OF baw enotteotiioeye tied? oF 
ey aay ibebiove ¢lextine 6d of tavern ow ey hwyeh | wort anoiisiuY +.da0e to. 
a i haba sngntb(tus Bo anotteredie nd wiom neve bas eyaiblind wea ak 
Be feb sions tw poreeins:* od ah sou ROH how bl Aeneid sesitad — 


‘ 
ea 
oe i BE 4. oan) Pt Yi 
7 ve wi bis bh ore pelt q Pa F 1 Pa e 
§ tr Pe! ‘ ree be oy 4 Ab ee he Boy R nea? t " 
ene Sa eet WAS Og : ee : i 
v T i 4 VAs } 1 
7 TF 


P 4 vary wed ‘ ; ‘ > , ; ae ek} } the ; 
0 ee ee ee La Mey ioc) «heh wi ee oe Lae Ton ae 


- 


78.: ARCHITHCIURAL COMPOSITION. : 

else is its position so uncertain, its influence so linited., This is part- 
ly due to two things, connected with the usual method of estimating and 
contracting: - 

1.: The German architect is generally required to compute the quanti- 
ties and the estimate of cost of the building, required betore letting 
the work to the contractor. 

2, The architect and contractor are usually the same person, an aca 
demically trained architect becoming a contractor, or an artistically gift- 
ed contractor being also a practicing erchitect,: 

The first case may have results of a most serious kind, as shown ky cas- 
es in which architects have become ectuelly liable ty exceeding their pre- 
liminary estimates,’ If the custom is once established for the architect 
to prepare the estimete of the cost, a moral duty is laid on him to keep 
within it, end he must lessen the risk by taking the execution into his 
own hands. It is certainly true that the confidential relation then ends, 
which the architect should have as professional agent of the owner, and 
for the good of the entire profession this is most strongly to te deplor- 
ed.: 

The position of the architect becomes perfectly clear and independent, 
and his authority greater and more important, if he aces erepore the quen- 
wities and the estimate of the cost as is the cese in England and part- 
ly in France... In England the first is made by the architectural survey- 
or, the last teing prepared ty the builder; similar functions being per- 
formed in Franee by the architecte-verificateur and the entrepreneur.: af 
their basis and for letting the contract, in England, a specification or 
accurate description of the work is added to the plans and prepared by 
the architect, who has to see that this is strictly carried out during 
his supervision of the work,: His duties are otherwise the seme, but his 
services are exclusively devoted to his employer., The functions of the 
contractor and of the architect are not united, being considered incom 
patible with the authority of the architect.’ Interest in any building 
contract is condemned in the strongest manner by the entire architectur- 
al profession, and preparation of the quantities Ly the architect or his 
partners is otjected to, at least in cities. 

No prospect now exists in Germany, that we may attain to the fortunate 
position of our English colleagues. Yet they are just es strictly held 
to their specifications and to the contract, as we are to our estimate 
of cost.’ Variations from drawings are never to be entirely avoided; for 
in new buildings, and. even more in aiterations of Luildings, unforeseen 
things occur; improvements are suggested,not to ke rejected without de- 


4 ee BOWES GAAUTON NL MOMARS A Laem 
eter? ot he sane te sanenais fie Reeuss aynade deus yxeve bes doom fd" 

daonan is eviese7 OF ‘neue edt Oo} Jweyyue ct efdselvbs ero? 
yna to scr oon eet htes wit to 2ace eft to Fie tog med tyodse , 107 


we ant Aidsiggyood od eidkasog ef ti .vaw ald¢ af boxdt etiokt mideti 
ia  eetg odt dite saeva hebtibaoe Isvaway yrov whew sgeegsons .geon bedeots 
ue stoetinow eit OF Qalabewe nt wlumes Ihbw aids. cmistehivac to meseve eaee 
mite ed? sslvreque bie ayseobd ode oiem of misio treuicari nokedeiasy Les 
dee agi 10? atend hexl} bes objenevava o tatatue ttle (lke Jad: <, tosfouna 
edt at eocsttogai ef] «.4enwo edd Yo saoge ieettrdili ‘ce an noktiacg Lagu 


ob ayewie Dinow.ed god? eetogove: bivow senwé gd? © i eldatuqetbal eaod 
__setpos tors beoneizegxe bas ivtiivxe @ of ynibLivd etd Jeowsme of sedded 


etantiee edd of soitibba 


2 ih iti ate SIA oS aaah a ea a 
3 A 0g ; 


| sed @onebasqebai ert bas .bexestont of ydorednoslose yrinumios baw etade _ 


) @AP feds haadertebay bivow oH i scodiiud. t9te0n ott of 22 teteness oa. edd: 


tokinooxe ak bas dnettsers oitaidis bre .agieeb ai ankey dares bivew Xue 
as tien #6... qidadansiow bas glelieseg ots-t> nofelvie we a'toetidets. edt. ud 
ee. moss ads bat wegeinevbs saedT ,astixe uct emialo seninws ud lewoos a6 
eS ,Sbsaxban i sbetweke ots adbotetmi aii fads ayond odv jr0ane edd Yo vel 
ge re Oainipen aa +, S000idote ett: GP bisq aeiesinsoo rot stegmedgas 
ee aay 8 ato a8 se | 95008 To Paeassed? «(2 aeFgedd 

fee” | | Le tesed. 38 

th ited s Cah. ti sia od? Gileveney af acox havofone os eowherg of 

. Se fount Mittin oy xe moor elgate edd did eoneasco erwhovedd of 


pity edtidecmgede. od tot efand @ amzoT dofitw joenele of? we orion gd 
de wh tence esp Jom e148. ett titeid oiy to bee voor ed} to ean edt - aad 


pee 


Ng he 
q et iaw feniesxe 64/ bre toot edd exe atisy yriablome-seaqe' ed? .avasq fe 
pee hoe Aotsivib ed? ,guiltes bne to0lY ed? gried agteg. yathivib-eosge eds 

“(Liaw {ance txe feciontas eid of Llalloxeg i lave teidel edd yallew olbbie 
pS she eypition brie enoo! ‘wluotbneqieg ¢lissemeg ete tenitey add doldw od 

i. ‘,goizoed jasettip ofer gatblited edz ebivil 


ar ni peti tenoa +o. here Ylegen xi SY eoeqe 8 Beortivpet yisdeugett eidt 


= 


Taeented edtoqque ate themretat Otivpes. toot bas yailive Jed? casted dowe I¢ 
“ts tO sebsanolod cine bee” 16 Sieig ow bety heotelomk we Moug ailow eas 
oo Ne allow | has’, toot ,yotlieo edt ..eoeqe sbivibave of beyolque cule or sebso 
7 a) aaoor Adin 72 1oitedes, edt ftiw eokinetaos 4. tok predotdny agblc#..67s 


on Ay 
aa § 


etidors @Ae So (ise sid ee bob ye’ oi of Oala az eldT .gndbiind 


Yeu dena Lied s aemiiemon :oiiiessg an eea0 em gate! eeiniedio. ,bewmvod 


* ) elo od ane ae tedy Oe tamed Pe ee bila Tetary race oe vad. 


ions O07 ont leit tee Gif cf aywoggs ef ec parol Istidoetitouw edi vine gud = 
“saw douse giibivib~sos,y im ud ufdaeg bane gnivelone-esege yf bemxot ylided eb: % 


a 


Z 


~ 

Vie ARCHITECTURAL COMFOSITION,: 
triment, and every such change causes an increase of cost.: It is there- 
fore advisable to suggest to the owner to reserve a certain amount there- 
for, about ten per cent of the cost of the tuilding, independent of any 
addition to the estimate. 

within limits fixed in this way, it is possible to keep within the es- 
timated cost, exceptigg under very unusual conditions.: Even with the pre- 
sent system of estimating, this will result in assuring to the architect- 
ural profession its just claim to make the design and supervise the con- 
struction, but will also furnish eae systematio and fixed basis for its nat- 
ural position as confidential agent of the owner.: Its importance in the 
state and community would thereby Le increased, and its independence te- 


come indiesputable.: The owner would recognize that he would sliways do 


better to entrust his building to a skilful and experienced architect, 


than to transfer it to the master Luilder.: He would understand that the 


«et 


‘work would thereby gain in design end artistic treetment and in execution, 


by the architect's supervision of the materials and workmanship, as wel] 
as security against claims for extras, These advantages and the secur- 
ity of the owner, who knows that his interests are assured, abundantly 
compensate for commission paid to the architect.: | 
Chagter ¢,: Treatment of koons,. 
9c, General. 

To produce an enclosed room is generally the aim in erecting a building, 
we therefore commence with the single room as the sinplest form of the 
building.’ This is also to te regarded as the cell of the architectural 
crganism, as the element which forms a basis for the shape of the tuild— 
ing.. The use of the room and of the building are not here considered, 
tut only its architectural form, as it appears in the design.’ The room 


/ is partly formed Ly space-enclosing and partly by space-dividing structur- 


al parts. The space-enclosing parts are the roof and the external walls, 
the space-dividing rarts Leing the floor and ceiling, the division and 
niddle walls, the latter usually parallel to the principal external wall, 
to which the former are generally perpendicular.: Floors and ceilings sut- 
divide the building into different stories.- 

This frequently requires a space to be merely enclosed, or sometimes 
covered, otherwise Leing as open as possitle; sometimes a hall must Le 
of such extent that ceiling and roof require intermediate supports between 
its walls, such eas isolated pillars, piers or columns.’ Colonnades or ar- 
cades are also employed to sundivide space.: The ceiling, roof, and walls 
are seldom unbroken; for a connection with the exterior cr with vooms am 
tove or telow, openings are arranged, generally so that they can be clos- 


' {BY 
th Lk MUN dias Gable \6- sass vb ceed ak? died Ge 
)  broget yas anotioor bas weoslg avivasqzer tiedt dye ke ds% o@ 
| aia 4? to iagntawes od¢ bas eosca edt to tnan 
"CRS aan | ee dake Nae 
ht a O° {tO Lereded atl 88 
a ty eet a aro 90) hadi oF tari? ved ew moor edd te tnemteort pa 
Be i 8 Of FE edtodw bas eins gtienes [tad giotnst oF vonawwter ditw ‘wi 
, — egakb Lied ed? to tcomele atintolwogqe 6 1g. beveleai oe ae bevebtanda ef 
her bi ; ‘i agl fo meds .wo01 edd to eau Hobnedat ede ao shnegeh ylimseiag wre? alift 
~ @ub ddiw axot ab flaie 39 amos ditw $k pakghdace yLiace to ytilisiesog 
Pring: “hom <seeieuaden ean eng ew: mans bie ,wthliod add to egade of bisset 
ae ist pris | a @Qaie Ht to etfyaes odd ae 
‘yee i HrO% -gyaheomela efT. 2 
-sbaget aenennes fis ni gep bdnavbn 7SOm BeSRSeAD HID) tein gnerows ait 
af SOM gtt Lien proms elorio Bd¢ tatogbasde demltagedion y! fetug ® orl he 
- i % 70, toe gma, #808 caod? et ,nenu_t telvgundoer Lis ysons ewsups ed? bas 
RAG risvbs aldT,. esis agviy § eaGlone ot costia Liew tare! sniziuyet eoods 
& ia [atone os divage, Ul laraces Geystdevbsath eonia ~isoltevoads ylao at ogee 
nae red d agel, #m99 eq fl tuodsa af eloaio ed? to reson: veq of? ti awh f 
iene bee BRO twiuewto Ind -weel ylleitesen wrote rods etsups edt to 
» bas ewobaiw Yo alisteh ott bas noltousgenco od? -.botoenncs ytsaorh 
sb10 of ebsa ed Jaum gotdstnw? bas eandtawt Cis ‘olgmia aeel oun 
‘ eeeal exe asti feo i %% to ened? ,euibsa egris 0 ANS ..te0b besaston} 
| | piri yedd. yeutba +isma 8 déiw tod ewiswwo ¢dyile edt yd hevonet qo 
emf .emoot Lisme 103 fanoivaeoxo at agigq to eqyt 4elvorto edd bas heuneqa 
ee ad @oidiugttib YB at aed Cale woyylog iesuged 8 Yo mot everéxores 
doolioe!teb ‘bas Belgne suovemin to taucoss no noldowadence bas nottentd 
i - Mollouwenos ak fewisa ban eliguis e1om anideyveve sedan @lanstoay ed? » 
/) tre “yrs dneme Le berteterg bas Inuoy ed? esotededs at ti (2oemegns tie bow 
ne td aaibiiud ed? to faomele etemges to-¢iau yntbiind & a6 moor s To. 
Bis. ake “gerrl to ai etle ad nad bebiovs ed tonnes andor be lace evonldo (he 
Pi he (wed hedd tk \ésetd ton ed olgastoey add wort tolistusy 22 bas ,uvot vale 
‘= waa dein neve ded? extooo eemitewoe ft] (P2969) eldaeotson ehebesse &euod 
oe a ‘aye ai tf ,ateette to eolyes ts aesia no a8 alg bavory twlvasstoon 
aa Ne — elisw isatedxe 6Hy OF euplido aixs na stuode nelq ed) ehaeris of afdia - 
Tooke 325,529) guptido ylietisag 200 ofni moor wluynsdoer 4 yitignads 
oy “xditelogerit ode BS 1020, 1¢ Lugns too7 8 O@Gf nOOt upiiio Yitigile « mrot 
. <1 dove gud; ievi98 ee ve bas 52) aad ae Hoitn lop. ed. sI809qQ8 Jon teue~ 
bianco ont to fnbdo0s 20) anatg yisaibto 92 shisotiqan tox ot ainemeyaet 
a: oa tude odd aid soitetaey add a termina Keantt enema © idee.) 


i ,, ‘ae ; 
yk U han id ids . ‘ oy s ‘ WAT 7" ‘ Ve. “ 
ie hi iy: ¢a > Je ae ‘ ; Aad, eM oa A, R ee we’ : Oe 


5 


ee 
eget 
- ‘oe 
~ ey | 

, c bas : 


; | 
fd: ie ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
ed as desired,: te have to treat of these parts of the building only 
so fat as upon their respective places and locations may depend the treat- 
ment of the space and the treatment of the building.: : 
ae: The Room: 
§83,: Its General Forn.: 

In the treatment of the room, we have first to consider its form in gen- 
eral, with reference to factors influencing this, and whether it is to 
te considered as an isolated or a space-forming element of the building.: 
This form primarily depends on the intended use of the room, then on the 
possibility of easily combining it with rooms of similar form with due 
regard to shape of the building, and lastly upon the money available and 
on the results of its shape.: 

04,: The Elementary Fora.: 

The rectangular form possesses most advantages in all respects.: Regard- 
ed from a purely mathematical standpoint, thé circle among all figures, 
and the square among all rectangular figures, are those most compact, or 
those requiring least wall surface to enclose.a given area.’ This advan- 
tage is only theoretical, since disadvantages generally result and neutra- 
lize it.: The perimeter of the circle is about 11 per cent less than that 
of the squere, therefore materially less.: But circular rogms cannot be 
directly connected.: The construction and the details of windows and doors 
are less simple; all furniture and furnishing must be made to order at 
increased cost.: With a alrge radius, these difficulties are lessened or 
or removed by the slight curvature, but with a small radius, they are in- 
creased and the circuler type of plan is exceptional for small rooms.; The 
approximate form of a regular polygon also has many difficulties in com- 
bination and construction on account of numerous angles and deflections. | 

The rectangle makes everything nore simple and natural in construction 
and arrangement; it is therefore the usual and preferred elementary form 
of a room as a building unit or separate element of the building. (Fig. 
98). Oblique angled rooms cannot be avoided when the site is of irreg- 
ular form, and if variation from the rectangle be not great, it then Le- 
comes scarcely noticeable (Fig.  94).: It sometimes occurs that even with 
rectangular ground plan, as on sites at angles of streets, it is permis- 
sible to arrange the plan about an axis oblique to the external walls, 
changing a rectangular room into one partially oblique (Fig.:95).. To trans- 
form a slightly oblique room into a rectangular one, if the irregularity 
must not appear, the solution in Figs. 96 and 97 may serve; but such ar- 
rangements are not applicable to ordinary plans on account of the consid- 
erable expense thereby incurred.. If the variation from the right angle 


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“~ ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

te considerable, the obliquity is to be limited as far as possible to sub- 
ordinate rooms, or by interposing suitable forms, a regular and pleasin; 
treatment may be obtained (Figs.: 96 to 101).: 

It is still to be considered, when the square is to be preferred to the 
rectangle.: Economy of wall surface will not decide, for if the rectangle 
dees not differ very much from a square, the saving will be slight, scarce-— 
ly i per cent difference for a rectangle having proportions of 2 to 4, 

Therefore difficulties in the design of the ground plan are not created, 
where advantages do not result, everything being taken into consideration. : 
The square form will be preferred, for a tower, (Fig.: 102), where no rea- 
son exists for giving to room different dimensions on transverse and on 
principal axes, Lut suggesting the same treatment in both directions. Figs.: 
102, 104 are examples. In these and many other cases, the regular poly- 
gon or circle 1s preferred, or ground forms composed of portions of these 
figures, whether intended for special purposes, as for audience rooms of 
“theatres, circus buildings, etc., for a centrally located room, or for 
one emphasized in some other way on the plan, or for convenient use of 
an acute or obtuse angle, an angular and unsymmetrical portion of the plan 
is actually preferable.:. The elliptical form is exceptionally found and 
may be replaced by an approximate figure composed of arcs of circles, or 


nO 
fe 


of one extended by straight lines. 

The arrangements first described are represented in Figs. 10 to 109.° 
by Figs, Oe and 10¢ an idea of the external appearance will easily be 
formed, creating a conviction that ty solutions derived from the most in- 
portant conditions of the problem, a characteristic effect may be obtain- 
ed, a trensition pleasing to the eye, and s combination of the masses of 
the building and of the members, which would otherwise Le awkwardly con- 
nected tocether rates \ ys 
ee Jassie rigs. 107 te 10° exhibit rooms enclosed by ares of cir- 

oS. pExtension of Rooms, 

For extension of rooms or annexes, apses, galleries, exedra, angle bays, 


as mais iar a and elways have a special purpose, another type of forn 

- gulte appropriate, as in Figs.: 110 to 117, whose effect is increased 

by contrast with the ordinary form. But for Simple and frequently recpeat- 
ed rooms, the use of unusual forms is unjustifiable. These should not 

ae sbp we crigin to mere whim or a desire of notoriety. Therefore the 

“galaahahat ground forms so commonly employed in the last century (amusement 

buildings, villas, ete.) should not te imitated, however skilfully the 

may be combined,’ : 


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0.” ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
Ge. Forms of Ceiling. of 
The form of ceiling depends on its treatment, and the tolilowing cases 
ere especially to be distinguished. : 

1. The roof at the same time forms the ceiling of the rooms; it is then 
space-enclosing or may be space-dividing, when an upper room exi sts,° 

é. The ceiling extends free over the entire room, or intermediate sup- 
ports may Le arranged Letween the walls... 

To these two motives, and the method of construction connected therewith, 
ere to Le referred the most varied forms of ceilings, which partly assume 
plane or curved forms, are partly inclined with uniform or broken slope, 
,»@ partly of simple or compound form. It is unnecessary to discuss then 
further, sincethey seldom occur except in rooms of especial importance, 
(Div.: &).. For ordinary rooms or simple elements of the building, the hor- 
izontal form of ceiling is most natural. It will therefore te taken as 
a basis, and the rectangular form of room be fixed upon as the leading 
one, voth in section and in plan.. The dimensions of the room, its length, 
depth, and height, are first determined in accordance with the purpose 
end importance of the tuilding, afterwards according to its construction 
and the location of windows, doors, ete., opening out of the room, 

27, Length: Listance between axes of wWindows.: 

The length of the room is fixed in accordance with the number of win- 
dows to te placed in the external wall and according to distances between 
their vertical axes. The latter varies with the scale assigned to the 
tuilding. The more important the structure, the greater is the distance 
between these axes. Euildings for utility or simple dwellings, especial- 
ly buildings with small rooms and numerous division walls, naturally have 
sual] distances between theme axes, while monumental structures frequent— 
ly have very great distances between them. From 6.2@ to 8.2 ft. may be 
ziven as least distance Letween axes of wie sepdl, Soe to 1148 ft, oye 
and cc,O¢ to cé.24 ft.: teins the greatest.: The distance between 


@.-3s 


erage, 
axes indeed very seldom falls outside these linits, it not being advis-— 
ale to assume a greater scale for the building and a greater distance 
between axes of the windows than the purpose of the building would justi- 
ty.. The lighting of the room would sometimes be injured therekty.: but 

it would certainly be very bad to make distances tetween windows too small, 
for the necessary repose in the internal and external appearance of the 
building would te lacking; the subdivisions would be too small, the re- 
lief too weak, and the general effect not imposing.’ The given average 
distance of &.20 to 11. 47 ft. will therefore te exceeded in important 
rrivate residences, and especially in many public buildings, on account 


of their purpose. (See Table).- 


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ai," ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

but if definite reasons permit the arrangement of windows and other op- 
enings close together, it is then advisable to combine them in pairs or 
sroups, thereby obtaining large axial distances and more imposin,: effect.’ 
“hether the room has one, two, or more windows in front, depends on whet h- 
er its everage length is one, two or more times the axial distance between 
windows, less the thickness of division wall.: The pier between the win- 
dows is the place for the location of. the division wall, which need not 
be exactly it the centre of the pier. Less than the half is often suf 


ficient at one side of the window and more is often necessary.’ (Figs. ' 
44S: 40). 18004). 
€8,: Depth: Position of Lcors.: 

The depth is the most important dimension of the room; other dimensions 
are to be arranged in accordance therewith, and in designing the building, 
ge therefore commence with the depth of the rcom, selecting the form of 
ceiling to suit this.: The depth itself depends on the possibility of good 
lighting by day.: If the ceiling te suspended from the framewak of the 
roof, or rests on girders, isolated columns, division walls, etc., spaced 
at such distances as to require no support betweem them, then may depth 
be taken at pleasure, provided that sufficient natural lighting is also 
obtained.’ In rooms of unusual depth (Div.6, Chap.4), one of the indica 
ted methods of construction must Le employed to secure the required depth; 
but for rooms of unusual size, the simplest construction is to arrange 
the ceiling so as to be free between the walls.: It generally rests on 
the external and middle walls, and the depth of the room is then natur- 
ally limited.: ven with iron beams, the depth can scarcely be made more 
than 24.8 to 2&2 ft. without using girders, or seldom over 21.2 to 23.0 
ft. with wooden beams, generally having an average depth of 16.4 to 19.7 
ft.: This is sufficient for ost purposes; less depth frequently suffic- 
es, and only in buildings with large rooms will more be required.’ The 
latter require sufficient clear height of the room, if the lighting on- 
ly occurs along its longer side.: 

But the depth is primarily fixed by the use of the room, which demands 
avallatle wall surfaces of a certain length. Therefore, if economy re- 
quires the least possible depth of room, we may decide on the possibility 
of so placing the connecting doors of the rooms in the division walls, 
that the required wall surtace exists at both sides,’ For most purposes 
it is sufficient, Leside the door from 6.56 to 6.89 feet remain to recieve 
larger furniture, with from 8.26 to 3,61 ft.: at the other for smaller pieces. : 
according to whether a single or double door is employed, for which with 
architrave from 4,2£é to 6.90 ft. is to be allowed, there results a depth 


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™ 2). mean vitae § hes Sage od hag: door art bay senior eds gad a8. 


82." ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

or 14.76 ft.: as in Fig.: 118, or 16.40 ft.: as in Fig.: 119.: whether the 
door is set near front or rear wall depends on which portion of the divi- 
sion wall is to be best lighted in the day time.: Custom influences this, 
but if the door is set in the middle of the wall, as in Fig., 120, a depth 
of 18.00 to 19,70 ft.: is required.: The arrangement of heating apparat- 

us is important for the wall surfaces.: The preceding figures are based 
on given average dimensions, Yet they permit reduction if necessary.: The 
depth is but rately fixed for a single room,Since a series of rooms gen- 
erally have the same average depth., 

9°,: Height: Arrangement of windows. : 

This is true for the ehight of the room, since the stories extend through 
horizontally, a break in this arrangement Leing only occasionally found. 
Height of stories has remained constant for centuries in buildings of the 
same kind, and may within certain limits be considered as fixed.: Like 
dimensions of roms, the doors, windows, etc., are in detail fixed by the 
height of man, otherwise by the mode of use.: Heights of stories of ordi- 
nary buildings are seldom less than 8.20 to 9.84 ft.:or more than 11,48 
to 12.10 ft.: But for buildings of munumental character, the lower or up- 
per limits may scarcely be given; yet heights of 19.70 to 26,20 ft.: are 
not at all unusual in Places, (See Table) 

But buildings for purposes of mere utility frequently require heights 
exceeding the usual ones.: For their dimensions, one must chiefly judge 
by size of room, especially by its depth, and it must te made higher, thg¢ 
deeper it is, so that parts most distant from windows may be well light- 
ed: this will be more effective, the higher the top of window, whether 
window sill be somewhat higher or lower; for the latter is only decided 
by the use of tbe space next to the window,: Therefore in deep rooms to 
be well lighted, the window should extend as close to the ceiling as pos- 
sible (Fig.:121).: This causes difficulty if the beams are perpendicular © 
to the front. wall. Such high locations for windows also appear inadvis- 
able for most buildings; some wall space is required above lintel or top 
of window opening to recieve curtains, blinds, etc. for reducing the 
light.: This produces the usual arrangement in Fig.: 1é2.° 

It is permissible in case of necessity to break the levels of the stor- 
ies on account of certain rooms, which must have greater height. This 
may be done in eitther of three ways: 

1.: By dropping the floor, the room then usually being in the ground 
story or above subordinate rooms (Fig.: 123).. 

2.: By raising the ceiling, above which the roof is directly placed, 
so that the height of the roof can be entirely or partly utilized. (Fag 


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noe ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
‘¢ 124).: 

a. By extending the room through two stories, whose total height is 
required,(Fig.: 125).: 

It must always be remembered, that these arrangements must not-make the 
construction much more difficult, mor may passage within the building be 
impeded. : . 

100.’ Proportions.: 

In determining the height of such unusual rooms, a factor of importance 
in esthetic relations is to be considered, which may te neglected for rooms 
,f ordinary dimensions arranged in continuous stories.’ This comprises 
proportion of its interior, or the ratio of its dimensions.: For deter- 
mining these, the point of view of the observer in the room itself is de- 
cisive, even more than for the exterior.: The following data may serve 
as approximate rules, where length and depth are to be taken between the 
points of support of the ceiling, and height is measured between floor 
and ceiling... . 1M 

According to old and well known rules:- ~ ; _ 

1.: Height = 2/3 to 3/4 the depth. , 
2. Height = 1/3 (length + depth) 
3,: Height = 1/8 (diagonal of rectangle of length and depth).: 


According to Durand:- 
4,. For horizontal ceilings:- 
Height = depth, if length exceeds depth. 
Height less than depth for square, polygonal or circular rooms, 
5. For vaulted ceilings:- 
Height = /1/2 times depth, if length exceeds depth. : 
Height = depth for square, polygonal or circular rooms.’ 
But these rules will be so modified for rooms off unusual size that the 
height may be so much less than the depth, the greater the aksclute dimen- 


sions. : 

According to Fergusson:- 

é.: Keight = 1/2 depth + square root of length.. 

The first rule makes the height depend upon the depth and is very arbi- 
trary; rules 2, 3, 4, and 5 are frequently inapplicable. In the last two, 
Durand has correctly recognized that the height of the room is not alone 
to be brought into relation with its length and depth, tut also into har- 
mony wibh the form of the floor and ceiling. Yet he proceeds arbitrarily, 
when he makes the height of the room equal to its depth, or to one and 
half times the depth.: Fergusson's rule gives rather inadequate height 
for small rooms with length and breadth less than 1¢,.4 ft., but very suit- 


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84,° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

able height for large rooms,’ If several large rooms occur in a story, 

a suitable average height is to be assumed. when these are of sufficient 
importance, sutordinate smaller rooms may be arranged in two stories by 
inserting an intermediate floor.: 

Dimensions of rooms are also determined in accordance with space requir- 
ed for their purpose, generally being calculated for the number of per- 
sons assumed therein.: These details are referred to the discussion of 
the different kinds of buildings, and for the usual dimensions of doors, 
windows, etc.:;, see Part III of this Handbuch.’ A collection is added of 
axial distances, depths and heights of rooms, taken from a number of the 
most important buildings, mostly recent. The absolute dimensions are in 
many cases fixed by the uses of the room, but in other cases are influ- 
enced by the rank and importance ofthe building.: As an example of the 
earlier period for comparison only, is added the Loggia dei Lanzi at Flo- 
rence, built about the middle of 14th century, which is perhaps unsurpass- 
ed in beauty and grandeur of proportions. : 

TABLE OF BUILDINGS. : 
distance between vertical axes of windows in feet.: 


it 


D.: = Depth of room in feet.: 
H.:= clear height of story in feet.: 

Kind of Building.: A.’ Dy Hy: Notes.’ 

ied wae a ci mappa aia SO 
School, Munich B28 eecrberde. 60) Tapas ‘és: Water peasy, 
Farm tuildings, Frankfurt F900 12.6 &.2 ---- A.:= width of stazl 
Res. of H,. Fischer, Vienna, ¢,56 19.7 12.6 13.8 2 t-ws combined. | 
Res, of H.) wahner, Aix-la-Ch,: 7,55 Qo LvMiaed wht? 
Prison, Plotz. Berlin 8,20 18.1 10.8 10.8 aA. = width of cell 
Central hotel, berlin 9,325 19.7 17.4 14.0 Front, Fiedrich bt.. 
assem, bldg.:, Neustadt 9.88 29.5 19.7 4. = unit of bldg.’ 
Post Office, Stettin.: 6.82 ° 19.7 Th. acd, , 
Verein bank, Stuttgardt.: 9.86 20.4 14.1 15.4 ae é ie pees: 
building School, " 11.0 283 14.4 14.4 Jone ote Rables.- 
Frank.’ Hotel, Frankft.: 11,20 24.2 19.7 18.2 Central portion.. 
Main bldg.,Univ.Strasburg.: 11,20 4¢.6 19 4 81,8 Ent.hall & main hall. 
Court House, Stuttgardt, 11.80 21.5 18.4 15.2 Main front.: 
Theatre, Riga. : 11,60 29.9 18.8 18.4 &nt.: hall 4 foyer.: 
Polytech., Berlin, h.Bldg.: 14, 80,427. 9,006 420.6 fore 10 small orf 
stad. art. Inst.,Frankfort 12,20 148 16.7 16.4 4 £ width of rooms.: 


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a 


G5. . ARCHITHOTURAL COMPOSITION. : 


Kind of Building.: 


he: 


Dy’ 


LO NS LT LS OS TS TE AS AS So eS SY ES HS OE SN CS A I NS EY OO CS SE GE SS SD Ry Os ee a ee he Se et SO ae Hn SY 


Chen.’ Inst. Univ. Vienna 
Rathans, Vienna 

Govt. Bldg.:,, Dantzic 
Abatt.: & Market Budapesth 
Library,Univ.: Of Halle 


Gen. Hospital, Berlin 
anhalt R.R. Sta. Berlin 
Harmonic Society, Heilbrau 
Vict.: Storehouse, berlin 
Royal Villa, Berg.: 

Castle Hummelshain, Jena.. 
Meininger Bauk.',berlin 
Barracks, Lutec.: 
abattoir, berlin 

Theatre, Berlin.: 

Bourse, Vienna 


State Library, Stuttgardt.: 


Spinn Block, Berlin 
wohler School, Frankfort 


K.w.. Gymnasium, Berlin 


Borsig Palace, Berlin. 
Res.’ Thonet , Vienna.: 


Polytechnikum, zurich. : 


Pal. Reichstag, Berlin 
art. Ind.: Museum, Berlin 
Main 4.4, St.: Frankfort 
Museum, Arsenal,Vienna 
Loggia d'Lanzi, Florence 


14, €0 


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b.: Lighting of Rooms. 


TOs * 


Natural Lighting.: 


O> 
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14.5 23.6 
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9.2 8.9 
19.7 
16, 4 
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4¢,4\. 32,5 


14, 14.4 
£3, 3 
16.4 14,4 


38.5 
20.7 24.0 
78.8 
24,2 26.5 
78.7 


A=2 working ples.,: 
A=unit of kidg. 
Central Building.: 
A. =4stalls,: 


A.=Zbook stacks 
Berens to story, 


A.=é beds. : 
waiting room.,: 


N.front.: 

Main front 

Double windows, : 
A.=room for 10 men,: 
&.=1 place.’ 

Concert hall 2 story.: 


Ent. nall : hall on 
main front, : 


fet chookcases; 4 
iers in ug. story. 


For ist & énd stories. 
rouped. windows at 
peut A hen all. 
A, = 1 schoolroom 

with AeGehe WiNGOW. 
Voss ot. front. 

ist & bapement . Blore 
168 together: 4.>= 

é Windoéws in end story. 
Central portion. 
fe & windows in 
jasement. 

hain facade, centre. 
Grouped windows, 
Central buildiny.: 
A.’ = 1 stand of arms,: 
Total height... 


Natural Lighting by sun light will be treated here, and is introduced 
through openings in the walls, ceiling, or roof., These either open di- 


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7 


E6.: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 

rectly into the open air or into a well lighted room above or at one side. - 
Direct light is obtained in the first case, borrowed in the others,: Stal) 
dspecially in side light, a distinction must be made between that from 

the entirely unlimited exterior and that from a limited space , streets 

or courts, enclosed by adjacent buildings, light then being partly reflects 
ed.’ These openings are also means of ventilation, which then occurs in 
the most rapid and natural manner; j in our climate they seldom remain 
Open, but are mostly closed by sash windows, or by glazed skylights in 
ceilings or roofs. Glazed doors also sometimes light 4 room. It is on- 
ly necessary to mention these arrangements, so far as their location in 
wall or ceiling and the required area of light surface for the room are 
concerned. Guality of light depends upon the node ,¢ lighting:- 

1.: whether low or high side light or ceiling light is provided, : 

e. fhether this is direct or borrowed, side or gelling light.. 

The climate, season of year, location and surroundings, also influence 
intensity of light.: 

102,- Glass area, 

In determining the glass area, these factors are to be considered; the 
use of the room is of great importance, and it is to be remembered that 
intensity of light diminishes inversely as the square of the distance in- 
creases.’ Since light is broken and diminished by glass, the window is 
to be considered as a source of light, and the distance is to be taken 
from it. All these are to Le taken into account in given cases, and the 
light area determined accordingly,’ Requirements based on the use of the 
room will be mentioned in successive volumes of this Handbuch under dif- 
ferent kinds of buildings, such as school houses, exhibition buildings, 
museums, etc.’ Reliable methdds for determining quantity of lizht intro- 
duced through windows into any given room, will be given in other volumes 
of this Handbuch. These processes chiefly consist by means of sclid ang- 
le measurer, in measuring the pyramid of light directly radiated to any 
point in the room to be examined. : 

The general rules are unsafe and inaccurate, such as that for lighting 
rooms of ordinary height, 1/7 to 1/5 of the floor area is to te taken as 
the glass area, and that the top of the windcw must be at a height above 
floor equal £/2 the depth of rpom, etc.’ For openings may thtreby be fix- 
ed, which may sometines introduce insufficient light, or may supply more 
light than is necessary. The latter results much more frequently than the 
former, using the ratio of 1/7 to 1/5, and a window orening fixed by this 
rule citen produces such abundant lighting of the room, that this light 
must be at times obscured ty curtains, shutters, etc. This is true for 


ys 
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sbabiove «J e307 
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gnivil o¢ éidsotiaw ylleltoogae 2i tt $5.8 of 36,5 Yo Higied spent edt 
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fitod tiditxe anciteweul{i evod? .86f Sl ogi at weeliod yd bests iqxe 
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87,: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, | 

both side lights and skylights; if the former are more frequently linit- 

ed by surroundings than the latter, then is the light from the latter so 

much the less intense, being usually recieved through the roof, at a great- 

er distance from the floor, generally through two thisknesses of glass, 

Reflected light is especially unsuitable and disturbing and should there- 

fore be avoided, | re 
10e., Direct and Indirect Lighting. 

Only rooms recieving direct light can usually Le said to te well light- 
ed. windows are used for this purpose, and their lintels or tops are plac- 
ed as high as possible, according to art. €2,: The rectangular window is 
most suitable, admitting more light shan any other form of equal width 
and height.; Height of sill window is fixed according to use of the room. ° 
The usual height of 2.4@ to 2,82 ft.: is especially applicable to living 
‘fooms, and is such that one can conveniently open the window and look out. 
In many cases (schools, prisons, etc.) toth of these are not intended, 
but merely to light the room, and such a low sill would not te advisatle, | 
The sill is then higher, in many cases above the head as in halls, to af- 
ford protection from draughts through crevices of windows, : (Fig.’ 1200s 
borrowed light should be employed only in sutordinate rooms and when un- 
avoidable, but only with care and so as to make ventilation Ly the open- 
ings possible.: Therefore windows should be arranged in addition to sk y—- 
lights, or at least air flues should be provided, | 

104.; High Side Light and Ceiling Light. 

High side light expecially occurs in rooms of great depth, and in those 
of such great height that windows ere placed atove roofs of adjoining rooms 
(Fig., 126).: Notable examples of these are domed structures and basili- 
can designs (Figs,: 127,129).: Rooms of very great depth reguire for good 
lighting windows along toth long sides as well as along the ends. Yet 
one should avoid placing windows where unnecessary. Ceiling light is fre- 
quently arranged, though improperly, with entire exclusion of side light.’ 
Both often influence the form of the ceiling (Figs. 128,130). Direct ceil- 
ing light can only be oktained in a room located in the upper story; yet 
it may also sometimes be utilized in lower rooms, as in Fig. 128. 

The value of ceiling light in comparison with that of high side light is 
explained by Boileau in Figs. 181, 182. These illustrations exhibit both 
modes of lighting arranged in the same room, for example, in a hall 32.8 
ft. wide with side rooms 18ft, wide extending along the long sides, with 
twe stories of galleries above,. These side rooms recieve light only from 
the opening in the ceiling, or from side openings in ugper wall of hall, 
For points 0, L, I, F, of the floor, the number of light rays falling on 


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2 we 


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S6;°* ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
each are found for a oross section plane through the sentral angle in both 
cases,’ These give the following results, ' 


Fig.’ 194," Fig. 122 
For point F 47 degrees,- 12 41/2 (9 + 4 1/2) degrees,: 
he We OP 141 VB (14 + 1/2 } tl 
ate 26 ‘ 10 1/2 degrees, . 
y G 9 4/@" =) 4/2 " 
it EB Q if 9) "1 


If these values are laid off as ordinates on the axis of abscissas, 6, 
0, L, I, F, the areas of the hatohed surfaces given in the two illustra- 
tions represent the relative quantity of light, which for an assumed dise 
tance of ¢.48 ft,' betweer. the points, are in the proportion of cOe in Fig,’ 
121 to 7@.5 in Fig, 182.. The number of light rays be similarly determin- 
ed for points in the two galleries. The length of light openings. is ne- 
glected in both cases. For complete eomperison, this must be taken into 
account, i.e. there must not alone be measured a section plane through 
the opening for light, but the volume of the entire pyramid of rays, whose 
base is the light opening, and whoae vertex is the given point, as well 
as the inclination of the resultant of the light rays. This may be done 
with the solid-angle-measurer already mentioned. ° 

The light reflected from all sides will be introduced into those parts 
of the room that recieve no direct light (vertically hatched in Figs,: 131, 
122),. It is to be ascribed to this, that high side light and omission 
of ceiling light as in Fig. 122 affords a light less Lright, but much mil- 
der and more uniform than ceiling light, which hes a very dazzling and 
disturbing effect. Fig. 12¢ is an example taken from a Vienna building 
with the arrangement in Fig. 181.: A kind of high side light and very et- 
fective is afforded by saw-tooth or shed roofs.: The glass area should 
then be turned to the north. 

The lighting of rooms located in the intersection of two parts of bien 
mits is generally difficult. It is either by a ceiling light as in 
Fig.: 188, or large side light windows are arranged at one end of the room 
as in Figs. 134, 186. Or the room may be lighted like the so-called " 
Serlin" room. Direct sun light is then usually introduced obliquely as 
nn Fig. 142).. For indirect lighting inside rooms, light courts or light 
shafts are frequently arranged, enclosed in the building and recieving 
direct light trom atove. These generally have a single or double glass 
roof (Fig... 12¢).. By their enclosed location and high roofs ventilation 
is obstructed, light is not uniformly diffused, and the side walls are 
brightly lighted; but the glass or area should not be too swall, not less 


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Go,” ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
than 21.5 to 63.7 sq.:ft.: for light shaft, or 107.5 sq.ft. for light court, 
The ordinary "area" in English houses in blocks has many advantages, and 
is also an effective protection against penetration of dampness horizont- 
ally.: This kind of light court, like that in Fig.: 127 is frequently em- 
ployed.: Low lying cellars must often be lighted ty small light shafts 
constructed in the masonry opening in the surface next the court or street 
being properly covered and protected (Figs.: 188, 139).- 
105.: artificial Lighting.- 
The artificial lighting of rooms and location of lighting fixtures do 
not exert as much influence on the plan of a rowm as the natural mode, 
The removal of gases of combustion from lighting fixtures arises, and if 
these are also to serve for ventilation, this factor may within limits 
determine the treatment of the room. How this, may-influence the form of 
the ceiling and of halls will be shown in the last chapter of this volume. 
c.. Arrangement of Chimneys and Heating Apparatus, 
10é,- Chimney Flues.. 
The choice of heating system and arrangement of heating epparatus are 
of great importance, both for room and for the building to which it be- 
longs.’ We only mention wpparatus for local heating, such as stoves, fire- 
places, etc, connected with these are the flues, in regard to which it 
is to ke noted, that they showld Le placed in the rear’portion of the room 
and in the interior of the building, preferably in middle walls support— 
ing beams in Germany and austria, in division walls in France and england. 
In the last case, every other division wall is made thick enough to recieve 
the flues, but frequently only the middle wall in the first case.’ Accord- 
ing to arrangement of walls and teams and to the weakening of masonry by 
openings, numerous exceptions from the rules occur in both cases. both 
methods are required partly ty different construction, partly by nature 
of the heating apparatus.: The flue is objectionable when it projects from 
thin walls, External walls ape least suited to recieve fiues, partly from 
their less protected situation, partly for the great height to which they 
must rise free above the roof to a point higher than the ridge. In sin- 
ple buiodings with flat roofs, this objectionable feature will be very 
visible, while on rich facades with steep roofs and tables, the chimney 
caps may be effectively employed as motives for artistic treatment of 
the external architecture. 
107, heating Apparatus. 
Otherwise flues are to be arranged according to location of stove or 
fire-place, this being fixed according to the uses of the room. This rais- 
es the question of kind of heating apparatus, and whether it is to be sel- 


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fr een COVG 
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4 


£0, ARCHITECTURAL CORPOSITICN, : 

exted with sole reference te heating the room, or with regard to pleas- 
ing appearance.: In the first oase, the stove is so placed as to inter- 
fere least with use of the rooz, tut in the second, it takes a prominent 
position as an ornamental object of internal decoration, 

The fireplace with epen fire is a luxury, common in France and England 
tut in Germany it cecurs only in sumptous buildings, then being usually 
couktined with a central heating system.: It is a very effective element 
in the decoration of walls, and is therefore erranged on the axis cf a 
room, where it occupies slight depth Lut consideratle width in rich de- 
Signs. ts chief charm is the open fire and hearth, around vhich persons 
gather for cosy, guiet and intimate conversation, so that in social and 
family rooms it is Lest placed at the centre of a long wall (Fig, 140) 
or against a broad pier. In French plans it is often placed in a window 
recess.. For rooms of societies and larger halls, a location between two 
doors is effective, as in Fig.: 141, the Opening ebove chimney breast being 
closed Ly a mirror or plate ,lass affording an effective view into the 
adjacent room, : 

the tile stove has been so perfected in form and color recently, that 
aS an object for effect it is scarcely inferior to the fireplace, even 
sometimes surpassing that.: iven if arranged with an open fire, it is seld- 
om placed at the middle of a long wall, as it projects much into the room, 
Space around the stove is not comfortable and furniture cannot Le placed 
near the stove. In accordance with the location of the flue, the best 
place for it is in one of the rear angles next the middle wall, as in Figs.” 
14s, 142, or beside a door, where sufficient width exists. The use of 
the room decides the locaticn of the usual terra cotta end iron stoves; 
it also locates the well-stoves, which extend through the wall, as in Pig.: 
144, and heat two adjacent rooms.: Stoves heated from the esterior were 
formerly common, but are no lonzer used and their great projection is thus 
avoided, 

Io avoid discomforts resulting from isolated heating, the fully devel- 
oped central heating systems offord means.’ without discussing location 
of radiators in separate and central heating, or the arrangement of open- 
ings for admission and removal of air, it may be briefly said that these 
aré to be suited to the decoration of wall surfaces, and that due regard 
must be paid to the selected system of warming in the design. 

Chapter 3,: Forms of Buildings, 
10€.: General. 

without reference to its purpose, the erection of a building is in a 
general way the creation of an enclosed space. A building usually consists 


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91.: . ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
of several rooms, serving for different purposes (Div.: I, Chap.: 1-9-12), 
arranged suitably beside and above each other.: The last produces build- 
ings of one or more stories, and according to their location, the ollars, 
basement, lower, ground, upper, and attic stories are distinguished, as 
well as intermediate or mezzanine stories. 

109. Buildings without Internal Rooms.: 

The enclosure of space is not always the purpose of the building. For . 
many buildings possess no internal rooms at all, or are without internal 
effect.: Here partly Lelong those highly important works in ornamental 
architecture, which only serve an ideal purpose, embody a spontaneous idea 
of mankind, and are therefore erected as monuments in honor of the Diety, 
or in memory of notable events and persons, Isolated portals and gates 
telong here, as well as certain objects transferred to architecture, like 
fountains, wells, candelbra, vases, etc. which by nature and origin be-- 
long to other technical arts, and those pertaining to landscape gardening. 
‘But since external form is both beginning and end of this problem, and 
the design and arrangement of the building according to the views of esth- 
etics, this is not the place to further consider then. : 

The following articles will treat only of the building in the usual mean- 
ing of the word, and as being produced by combination of separate space- 
forming parts.: Progressing from simple to compound, and commencing with 
the ground plan of the building as a proper basis of the design, the ex- 
terior will only be regarded in its chief outlines.: 

a,. Buildings of Simple Forn.: 
110.: Buildings containing a single room. 

The building of the simplest type contains a single room, undivided in 
plan and elevation.: Arts.: 94 to 9€ on forms of rooms in general apply. 
here; byt one is not restricted in choice of form of plan and ceiling, 
dimensions, ete. by consideration of adjoining rooms and parts of the 
building, and so far as the problem permits, may retain the artistic point 
of view. Simple and regular type forms are especially suitable here... These 
unpretentious structures frequently recieve richer treatment., The type 
form recieves extensions as in Figs. 110 to 115, and there appear modi-~ 
fied as ante rooms.’ The problem often affors appurtinity for use of rows 
of piers or columns, or of other space-dividing structural parts; a trans- 
formation upwards of the type form may often be observed, both in the in- 
terior and in the exterior of the building.: It is generally furnished 
with a base or substructure, whose height is compensated by arranging st-s._ 

In the external appearance of the building appears a free development 
of the architectural design, and if simple, especially in the form of roof; 


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OR: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
for this directly indioates the type ferm. The form of ceiling is alse 
of decided importance to the internal treatment, toth in construction and 
form, and agcording to Art. 98, this may either freely span the room or 
require other supports ketween the walls,: secording to tath methods, the 
structural system of the roof preferably approximates the form of treat— 
mant of ceiling of the room; but the latter is often entirely independ 
ent of the former.: Both are influenced by arrangement and distenees Le- 
tween points of support,: These buildings, partly of very limited, and 
partly of very imposing dimensions, have in all ages been most extensive- 
ly used in architecture as temples, chapels and mausoleums, lockouts or 
belvideres, pavilions and kiosks, ete., with simpler or richer treatment, 
and being intended for most diverse purposes, they afford suitable sut- 
jects for the artistic creative power (Figs. 146 to 147) Here likewise 
belong those very spacious buildings, where the nucleus of the desizn forms 
a single room, individed if possible, or a hall, then shaped in accord- 
ance with Div. 5, Char. 4 of this volume.’ The noblest monuments for the 
worship of the Diety, the cathedral and the church, are also included, 
as well as enclosed structures of all kinds.: 

111.: Tower-like Structures, | 

The building is further changed, if the problem requires a division 
of space in height, thus forming a design in two or more stories. aA ne- 
cessity then appears for connecting the stories, and stairs serve this 
purpose, there being sometimes arranged on the exterior, but are usually 
in the interior of the tuilding.: In the last arrangement, a side room 
is usually added to the principal apartment for a stairway (Fig. 148). 

Yet the staircase is often built free within the room. This is in tow 

ers almost invariably the case; their purpose is less to provide several 
rooms above each other, than a room of unusual height, necessarily limit— 

ed or enclosed. The isolated tower is to te first considered, 4:d which 

as a belfry, watch-tower, fortress-tower and gate-tower (Fig. 149), a look- 
out, water-tower, tridge-tower, lighthouse, a clock and tell tower or a 
campanile, is capatle of unusually varied treatment.’ It is indeed the crown 
of the building, the expression of an elevated room, treated in accord- 

ance with the special purpose to te served, and generally affording a suit- 
able and effective motive.’ 

Yet the tower is frequently not detached or isolated, but a very char- 
acteristic portion of the design of the Luilding.: For churches, city halls, 
etc., it has acquired by tradition a typical importance. It usually serv- 
es aS a staircase tower to connect different stories. but such a prom 
inent and monumental architectural mass shall never be so degraded in its 


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<b ARChITsCTURAL COMPOSITION, | 
importance, that without any purpose, it is added as a mere accessory, 
and in paltry dimensions serves as the sport of sn erring fenay, The pre- 
ceding considers only the most important of the Luildings of this class, 
tut an impulse is given to deeper study of these very interesting and grace 
ful creations of architecture. : 
tL. Buildings of Compound Form, 

112,: Principal Points.: 

aS in the case of simple forms of tuildings, there ogein come under con- | 
Siderction two different things, which are of decisive isportance in the 
generel form of the structure and which can slone te considered here: the 
form of the plan and the shepe of the roef,: 

From the latter resulte the upper terminationk and from the former in 
a manner, the lower _ . ending. If both are combined and are unit- 
ed Ly the vertical outer walls with due attention to the changes in fore 
upwards, we not only produce thereby the external forn of the building, 
but also an expression of its interior, sufficient for our purposes.’ This 
suffices for the internal form so much the more, since each room eppeers 
for itself, and the room was deseriled as the element of the building in 
the preceding chapter.: 

i. Form Of Pian, : 
Tie: nee con of Kooms beside each other.: 

we will first take up number aid sizes of the rooms. The question now 
arises, how and in what order ere the rooms to be arranged, and it must 
first be decided, whether the building is to be in one or in several Sstor- 
ies,: With ell rooms in one story, the horizontal extent of the building» 
is naturally muuch greater, and even with limited dimensions, the ground 
form will quite ditfer from that arranged in several stories.’ The choice 
of either mode chiefly depends on number and gurpose of rooms, and also 
on whether the uses of the building require all rooms te te of equal height 
or not.: In the latter, arrangement of the staircases to connect dif- 
ferent stories becomes very important; they ‘ai not exist in the firat, 
or are of subordinate importance. 

114.: Rooms for Facilitating access. . 

But in toth cases, oecessitility of all parts of the building is the 
first reyuirement in treatment of the plan, and this demands rooms for 
general use, which like stairways facilitate passage within the tuilding. 
These are ante and connecting rooms, vestibules and entrance halls, halls 
and passages, courts, corridors, or galleries, stairways and lobbies,: which 
for their importance are termed arteries of communication in the architect— 
ural organsin.: They are here only ecnsidered in regard to utility and 


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94, - ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. - 


suitability, and toth the beauty and design of the building diteae's on their 


arrangement, connection, end their distribution in the ground plan, They 
must be so designed that separate parts of the building and the rooms may 
be readily accessible, easily separable, and at the same time may be op- 
ened for free admission of light and air. This will be best attained by 
a clear general plan, with a spacious, but compact arrangement of these 
means of communication. : 

while in simple deisgns for houses a vestibule or passage suffices, in 
extensive and complex forms of buildings, these ante rooms frequently oc- 
cugy consideralle extent.: Their plans must te briefly mentioned, since 


they form a leading motive in the treatment of complex forms of Luildings.: 


(Civ.: 5b, GBap. -1).: 

when permitted ty the site and the money at command, corridors are best 
arranged along an external wall, since communication is thereLy favored 
and light and air are Lest admitted.: Yet this is kad, when the corridor 
extends along a common division of fire wall, and the same occurs in case 
of a middle corridor.’ Both arrangements are objectionable in many build- 
ings. when permissible, care must be taken in their lighting, partly Ly 
direct and partly by indirect light. tindows at ends serve for this pur- 
- pose (Fig. 162), also light corridors as in Fig. 150, or projections of 


corridors and stairways at proper places are better, and also light courts, 


skylights and glazed doors as mentioned in art. 104.° width of corridors 
varies with their purpose.’ It is least for servants!’ passages, and is 
fixed by the possibility of convenient passage and of placing at the end 
-a narrow door with its finish. In extreme cases ¢.95 to &,c@ ft.: will 
suffice; if two persons are to pass each other, then 4.26 to 4,02 ft. will 
be necessary.’ But a long or side corridor in public bubidings should have 
a width of at least 6.58, or better 8.20 to 9,84 ft. 4 central corridor 
for frequent use is to te made correspondingly wider.: 

Like all rooms for communication, the arrangement of corridors other- 
wise depends partly on the building site and surroundings, partly on the 
purpose of the building, and from their arrangement chiefly results its 
ground form.: For in their combination these rooms form the skeleton of 
the building, around which are grouped in organic sequence memter by men- 
ber, and room by room.: The ground form of the building will also be in- 
fluenced by other circumstances of a partly practical and partly theoret- 
ical nature, ty number and size of parts of the building, by possibility 
,¢ good lighting and abundant ventilation, by regard to external appear- 
ance, to suitability, to tradition, etc.: Many kinds of buildings, as 
churches, theatres, hospitals, prise»s, etc., have acquired typical ground 


area. nee “age Lind to ata’ to 4596 at 
| awofle paw at” nik nat satemsod aatblivd eft to erisq to fidged oT 
ar jnere t1kb ang ie anetagemib yd bebiza oJ taom ano fedt 8 -.o44 at 
~fourtenco fitin ponagqages Ai figgeb bas tiptsd aiedt yaixt? at vile toegae | 
“oi, ..ode ,tdgiigeb yd Pras bees bog 32 ytilisieeos bas gatiies odd te. sek 
$m & to dé¢qeh egeagge ade oni et anoiierebienco eaend sort yalheso 
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| © hee eis seedi ,allew ets “to eeonietl? oid of sonese toy egb Agiw bie nevis 
a | -:awolfot as 
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ae ST B08. oe ES jes afohpzage Tsagniis Ay 
y “ng iertnes nonaeo 6 diiw smoot te enor bes 3 29 bog oyaoe ms igs aot 7 
| | ‘3 it 28 os 2 aE isode rohit 
a erotbs1100 owt Atiw ga001 to enor eet Ato spate bemes ae tq a 40t 2. 
| Poe 40.,.¢% 88 o¢ 8.03 swage 
tlie spas Agane,t pt Soetxe «666 
wai Basta ke phe .porkt pootaaatah al . pathiied edi to Bisq s ‘to diqss edt 
os he tL. ones . titi SSyh fy: i hie wi _gbabivers . a8 emootr ehte lf - Xd laneu 
BRR POOT PURE EIRO | aid aoieass tapos at Bitten ys T1s eels teitie ted th 
- bavexg edt -tefts i beso}. aliases Ab. gathiind edd to gee edt ,wtot 1s fy 
eng, 5 beals iqxe ac bea beteteb .. ¢hedsatxotags need aor Sewvoao sd of seme 
homeward Ort, ee ulgeds . -1o0m ,porgw zed te ei gigied avi «,Te¢q@seo oxen 
£7 6 “sagbiosa dneretilh wit to gyled bax 
| ‘ @30F bavorD - eft 
~bitud to digehd mort elgiil eseTttib yew eidi al. Senistdo iignel eid 11 
ot evi si.mtot tslugcstoet ylédytia to oe sups yiedeaixorygs ms . got 
ea WIA tibetede seed esd si (adr 3tt) aldstetetq sno ylleuay af bas ,5) 
ae letod fesol aatiupe: si weusoed ,jsoimonooe atom sf temiot edt dedi be 
| a : . gud -esentoid? muolins to od od esedd gcimvegs ,2ilew gnisolone to dzyael 
- .  agatblind ni seiwtedto aowset 2idd 102 at Ji rexyo00 nobise sestel odd 
@tsupa 5 to alisw gotsivib els sonte 2 Liew elbbin bas 28079 yd bebivib 
“ Agwods .se1s [supe to emo wslugnsjoe: 5 101. msdt dtynet r9tseT eriupst aa lg 
@lisw elbbin. to eprt af 82 1OVAOD sit 
aldexele1g edd eteta ot sotaeuosih sedvwt swodd iw eldleacq Jon ak ty 
“aglisciareteb aid¢ 10% ‘us [ugns toe odd to dtbsexd of ddyaat Yo offs 
ov ttel ed ercteted? tem bas. Aoivivibdue fsnieini edd ao beasd gated 
2 fa to-emo01 to rodmus &, eonenpea ai gatgasy7s. at fel .epeso {[etoeqe 
bas fisgsh tise gi of ewky- oi -eldeaivbs ei si tot besos fea £ oi asous - 
be, Me 2 nici aaa 
ib ais es aha 3 siete Sse naincte to tuetxe seadol 8 exis 
\ ee M7) ‘ Bee uke 


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.~«¢ 


OF: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, - 
forms under the influence of these different Causes, 
115.: Depth of Parts of Building.: 

The depth of parts of the building determine its form.: It was shown 
in art.: 98 that one must be guided by dimensions of the different rooms, 
especially in fixing their height and depth in accordance with construct- 
ion of the ceiling and possiktility of good lighting ty daylight, etc. Pro- 
ceeding from these considerations, we find the average depth of a part 
of the tLuilding, as in Figs.: 151 to 162; and from dimensions previously 
given and with due reference to the thickness of the walls, these are made 
as follows:- ; 

1,. For a flan composed of a single row of rooms with er witsout a lon- 
citusins} corridor, ateut 22 t0.89.5 ft.- 

é.. For a plan composed of two rows of rooms with a common central cor- 
ridor, about 39.£ to 59.2 ft.: 

&. For a plan consisting of three rows of rooms with two corrdiors, 
about 59.2 to 82 ft.: or more.: 

116.: Extent in Length and Height.: 

The depth of a part of the building is determined thus, arid unless” un- 
usually large rooms are provided, it will be kept within these limits, . 
after either three arrangements is chosen, assuming the ordinary rectang- 
ular form, the length of the building is easily found, after the ground 
area to Le covered has been approximately determined as explained in the 
next Chapter.: Its height is afterwards most Simply computed from number 
znd height of the different stories. | 

llu.: Ground Forn.: 

If the length obtained in this way differs little from depth of build 
ing, an approximately square or slightly rectangular form is given to 
it, and is usually one preferable (Fig. 154) It has been stated in 4rt.: 
04, that the former is more economical, because it requires least total 
length of enclosing walls, assuming these to be of uniform thickness. But 
the latter seldom occurs; it is for this reason otherwise in buildings 
divided Ly cross and middle walls, since the division walls of a square 
plan require greater length than for a rectangular one of equal area, though 
the converse is true of middle walls... 

Tt is not possible without further discussion to state the preferable 
ratio of length to breadth of the rectangular form, this determination 
being based on the internal sutdivision and must therefore be left to 
special cases... Yet in arranging in sequence a number of rooms of given 
areas in a selected form, it is advisable to give to it greater depth and 
thus a lesser extent of facade.. Though greater total length of thin di- 


au 


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$8.: ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
vision walls is thereby required, yet less extent of thicker and more coat- 
ly outer end middle walls that support the ceilings end roof is necessary, : 
To reduce the total length of the latter to a minimum is certainly most 
rationel, though attainable only within certain limits, To fix these lin- 
its is important on account of cost, both for simple and trequently re- 
peated designs, where maximum eoonomy is required, and for lerge and in- 
portant structures, since with their extent economy in cost increases, 
The general arrangement of plan must be fixed before relative dimensions 
of the ground form of Luilding mey be so computed, that with unchanged 
area, the total volume of walls may te made as small as possible. Attempts 
have been made to do this.: Fuhrmann investigated detached buildings of 
rectangular form and those composed of rectangles.: Maurer made similar 
inquiries, end went further ty finding the cost of constructing the walls, 
and also that of excavations, and of constructing ceilings and roofs. Schmitt, 
for special buildings (houses for railway guards) assumed fixed areas for 
the different rooms, and computed dimensions of length and depth to be ase 
signed to each roon.: 

with a large ground area to be covered, and after depth of building has 
Leen determined, an elongated rectangle results as its general form.: as 
usual for long external walls, projections are preferably arranged at the 
angles or center, as in Fig.: 155, in order to thereby obtain tetter pro- 
portions of the masses in the treatment of the facade, Cere must be tak- 
en to make these projectins masses either decidedly wider or narrower then 
the recessed wall surfaces. spproximately equal subdivisions produces 
monotony, and too frequent projections and recessions of relatively small 
dimensions have a disquieting effect. These projections also serve to ac- 
cent important portions of the building, and should in all cases corre- 
spond with divisions into rooms in the interior. 

Yet for a very extended length, it often becomes impossible to take the 
simple rectangle as ground form of the building.: It is permissible to 
add wings to the main building. Combinations of rectangles are to Le pre- 
ferred, which suit the site and.fit the programme, according to circun- 
stances, combinations in Figs. if@ to 1¢€0 are suitable therefor, are part— 
ly symmetrical, partly unsymmetrical in arrangement.’ These are all open 
forms, or permit free access of light and air on all sides. With these 
may be contrasted closed ground forms having one or more internal courts, 
ss in Figs.: 1@1 to 164. Variations in Figs.: 162, exhibit specimens of 
pertly circular, partly oblique forn.: 

Ground forms of preater extent and of varied shape result, when from 
detached dependent buildings for a common purpose, a united group of struct- 


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eee er ore es Aue 


a7 ARCHITSCTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
ures 46 to te formed,: Figs, 186, 16¢, are examples, where buildings ree 
ally belonging together in slan are in part closely, and in part loosely 
connected,’ In many designs of similor character, combination is inten- 
tionally avoided.: The decision of which ground form is preferable must 
be left to the different cases; also whether symmetrical or unsymnetrio~ 
al grouping is to te preferred,: Referring to Div. I, art,” 21, it may be 
briefly stated, that not only in buildings of monumental importance, Lut 
also in those built in solid blocks, a symmetrical design is usually more 
suitatle, and for isolated structures on elevated sites among picturesque 
natural surroundings, a freely and boldly subdivided tyce of plan is test 
adapted.: The ground form must always correspond to the purpose and Le 
truthful, therefore be developed from interior outwards; it must not te 
fixed with sole reference to external appearance and te an ertificial ex- 
‘terior, Lut must Le suited to the mass of the tuilding. hence one must 
not build from exterior inwards, but from interior outward, to determine 
the form.: This treatment of the interior and the division of the plan 
in detail will te taken ug in the next chapter, referring to selected ex- 
amples.’ Aside from these, we must then examine different modes of treat- 
ing the plan, originated Ly requirements and views of the time, which ap- 
oéar in the suprising and artificial forms of castles and palaces in the 
tbarocco and Rococo periods. . | 
€.. Treatment of Roof... 

118.: Ceiling.: 

The form of root and the form of ceiling influence arrangement of flan 
in some buildings, especially in structures containing large rooms, and 
which belong with the halls and assembly buildings described in last di- 
vision; otherwise, the plan influences the roof in form and construction. 
In regard to forms of ceilings of entire buildings, it may suffice to re 
mart that according to art.: 99 ceilings are generally arranged in accord-= 
ance with the division of the building into stories, and variations from 
this rule only occur in cases of especial importance. | 

11e.: Forms of Roof.: 

Treatment of the rcof as upper termination of the structure is capeble 
of unusual variation and improvement. It contrilLutes to the characterist- 
ic and effective exterior of the building, not less than combination ot 
the different masses and subdivision of these masses horizontally and ver- 
tically.: These motives have an essential influence on the form of the 
roof, which is determined ty the following factors: - 

1.. By the horizontal section or ground form of the building, which re- 
sults from conmtination of the different parts of the structure and fol- 


lesb ae % ; Tre 6 ob i Tr  elisw istrisgae to motsossth nt Razieia ew ds 
Tedsiieaen © $3 @egedinte: aeidie foiiw .aolisvele Iseltyev edt yd me 


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| Repo az faoatsors ett yd beeeetexe of 


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‘ol ganxe lenitot 


vc.. ARCHITECTURSL COMPOSITION. - 
lws changes in direction of external walls.: 

2.: by the vertical elevation, which either terminates at a common height 
or at different heights, according to whether the different masses of the 
building have the same number of stories or not.: 

2,° By the form of cross section of the roof.: 

4,. by the possibility of proper removal of rain water. 

The first three factors occur in such varied ways, that their combined 
effect produces numberless forms.: The fourth is no less important and 
causes important difficulties in buildings with closed forms of plan 
having two or three rows of rooms (Art.: 115), as well as for houses in 
blocks and those of irregular plan.: It is sometimes necessary to arrange 
the interior portion of the building as a kind of platform of slight slope, 
rain water pipes being carried down within the building itself, an arrange- 
ment only to be employed in the most extreme cases and with the greatest 
precautions. ° It is not necessary to investigate how the removal of water 
is Lest attained; yet this si shown in part by the following illustrations, 

Some combinations of roofs are partly produced by variation of ground 
form and partly by difference in height, the upper termination of the build- 
ing being effected by the surfaces of the roofs, as represented in Figs.: 
187 to 173.: These are based on the most useful combinations of differ- 
ent parts of the building as described in Art.: 117.. These examples suf- 
fice to show the influence of form of roof on main form of the building, 
and to illustrate their external appearance, together with the grouping 
of the masses of the building resulting from form of plan. The illustra- 
tions are here based on the usual forms of sections already employed for 
simple forms of roof. They principally differ in greater or lesser in- 
clination of plane roof surfaces, instead of which curved surfaces are. 
common.: From combination of these simple forms result compound profiles 
as in Fig.: 174.° 

120.: Development of Roofs.: 

That forms of roof are very capable of told and graceful treatment is 
shown ty numerous classical creations of the mediaeval and Renaissance 
periods, especially by monuments in northern countries, since men were | 
there led by climatic conditions to the most suitable design for these 
portions of the building, for which these periods well understood how to 
invent artistic forms suiting the locality is proved by well known his- 
torical examples.: 

The same conditions exist now as in earlier times.; The form of roof 
must. afford protection from rain and sunshine, and this requirement must 
be expressed ty its treatment,: why should we te ashamdd of this neces- 


A . - nOTeTaOINOD ind OATLAORA yea es ee 
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ent ed seum eidTt .zo1re elds of bel eaotave tao ttib 10t bas 
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heen ~o8 en evies Ysa ,telxe {fise gedd aanoisibaco 1ebar beouborg astelqtetasa 
gt _.aleb 
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sia to soisi0g gniawo1s s yd bedaiugaiteib od feng moox tnasiogel yrtsve 
‘ae oes beqoleveb vided te eboitey aries berivooo ald? ote .oideh. , toot 
ay piled soelg of “eoasbsoeh to eholieg got bevieset acw fi has ,euntoast 
tate aedd aitolo ot bae 2o07 ane, tebac ,emoot ifinea bas satel ,anedotid 
 aweiv dows -."eRoge% isgasaunoa" beifso si aiiT :.gaivayoo evoaotonom s- 
#azol isnoitex yd stedd beoaivnos ets soa sbotseqsea th tlesanuicot evad 
a wedded aoeean letutoodidoxs te gaiquorg iswisa yd bas egniblicd to 
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3 2 to agsox @ dud ef side .yew evisesa s si beyolgal -.snemteows Lacy 
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ro tase eas sisido yan taemele eupaemiols dé fed? ateixe aspqsh «6 
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_ tebr0 108 pr nete tediien .sehi evitseio eis eebleed .ais eidd doset_os 
‘yaianizes sd¢ essoibat of ebsa ad aed L[iié to guedis as jaldos! od sane 
; ad Eifwiseiquaxe ence olidw ,bwsoorg of ai goingieeh dotdw sort ataleg 
a) hed .efodw. B Be hetebiesoo od tect weldotg fosd .anoissttariii es babba 
ae alisjeb ot ‘Bedoseis Ietsns3 wort sesq tauw ow .ane{q odd ycingieed af 
4 a ee toiretat edd mod? Blind ot wal aavig edt of hosoggo soa ef eidt 
> edt: lssexe asaltguos eidt 10% .biewad sabsehon edt nort ton bas bisw 
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borden eds at Monted ott cate beiid bas 


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GO.- | | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
sary and rational protection and seek to conceal the covering of the tuild- 
ings.: The stupid imitation of foreign monuments :, built under ancther sky 
and for different customs, led to this error.: This must be the reason 
that men recently constructed flat roofs alone and neglected their devel- 
Opment,: For whatever is not readily visitle recieves no care. Roofs cer~ 
tainly afford motives for the uppermost adornment of the building, and 
masterpieces produced under conditions that still exist, may serve as mo- 
dels.: 

It is then clear each part of the tuilding must have its roof, and 
every important room must be distinguished by a crowning portion of the 
roof, gable, etc.: This occurred during periods of highly developed arch- 
itecture, and it was reserved for periods of decadance to place halls and 
kitchens, large and small rooms, under one roof and to clothe then with 
a monotonous covering.: This is called "monumental repose",: Such views 
have fortunately dissapeared; men are convinced that by rational forms 
of buildings and by natural grouping of architectural masses better ef— 
fect is produced than by vapid ornament or worn-out motives for architect- 
ural treatment.: Employed in a massive way, this is but a means of obtain- 
ing suitable importance for the modest rural building, as well as for the 
prominenet monumental structure.: Men have sometimes gone too far, and 
a danger exists that the picturesque element may obtain the mastery.: 

Chapter.: 4.° Designing. : 

121.- General.- 

The problem for the architect in the erection of a building had teen | 
brought within narrow limits, and we have more nearly attained the pro- 
posed end, the designing and representation of the structure. jsioreover 
to reach this aim, besides the creative idea, neither system nor order 
must ke lacking; an attempt will then be made to indicate the Leginning 
points from which designing is to proceed, while some examples will be 
added as illustrations. Gach problem must be considered as a whole, and 
in designing the plans, we must pass from general sketches to details, 

This is not opposed to the given law, to build from the interior out- 
ward and not from the exterior inward. For this comprises exactly the 
difference between research and invention, between study and personal crea 
tion in architecture.: To solve the requirements and arrangements of a 
building, and to deduce conclusions for the plan of the building, are the 
process of study and solution of a problem.: To commence with designing 
of structure as a single coherent whole, to pay due regard to its chief 
points, then to consider requirements in detail, to arrange all in order 
and bring them into harmony, is the method of independent creation and 


beat 
| gant oe alt PRS i peace’ pbseter to 


rita ae xii? abt of sgaitigold 643 20 moidact of bisget svorsie dyuor 
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7 ger. aio; bas ogists o2 aed tegni ay eds suitet of .dcettoqd! ef? 


edd at aio bas edsde axow os evis of ,yliecl baa .esneiges aub mi ae, é 
; ‘ dosois test? oz sot aeldon 
x ta Be: fAgiaed SSE 
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kot ai Aoseda Jeatt. ea, » gaeniseTo os t19g fistéa sebi edt es0bh .zefdo1g 
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bas, 258007, Sqsaa8, Ly eis bine sabaisotg geaceed [eiimbede ed’ 129438 
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ay ae tine JE daee 92 “be‘teye 6s “ed isy on ,datoq wids ‘ot ¢i gm! fad oF «be 
es 4 ee "toh 8lqate “baw tasio ad ‘beqofsved ei suis thet s ‘ede: fitey nt = 
eet QASBELOS Sus aaonsviseoto giiticay bas egisivoay~tles atete diay 
re i a a Jiwrsa saved aaieliixo lence wg asd? ‘bas dari? eomoe asig od? s6Y 
“ait “evitset2 ‘oat to datditizo gdissayetaiatb ‘tedt ; (189g as of gduob gnigyle 
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Pe are ae ee 


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100. : ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITICN, 
of artistic design in architecture,- Thus to first hew the statue in the 
rough without regard to fashion of the Clothing, to first fix the struct- 
ural organisn, to bring every member to its place, to concede prominence 
to the important, to retire the unimportant, to arrange and join every 
thing in due sequence, and lastly, to give to work Shape and form, is the 
woblem for the first sketch.: 

le2.- Design: 

The design intended for execution is not the work of a moment, or re- 
sult of the first and test idea, appearing in a quickly made and talent- 
ed sketch; only after hard labor and conquering the difficulties of the 
problem, does the idea attain perfect clearness,- The first sketch is tol- 
lowed by a second and a'third, the work becomes Simplified, otstecles dis- 
éppeer, the essential becomes prominent and the unim.ortant recedes, and 
we suddenly see the path leading to our @in.: Earlier sketches no longer 
satisfy us; a new and better image of the otject is before us; we lay hand 
agein to the work, which is tried and Changed, this part teing transferred 
from right to left, that from front to rear; every part now assumes its 
natural place, as if it could not be otherwise, and the problem is soly- 
ed.; To bring it to this point, no pains are spared to test it again and 
again until the building is developed in clear and Simple form, for which 
both stern self-knowledge and untiring creativeness are necessary, - 

Yet the plan comes first and then personal critieism, Never permit par- 
alyzing doubt to appear, that disintegrating criticism of the creative 
thought, before this is developed, for despondency is just as objection— 
able as overweening self-omcoeit.: One does not first loose himself in 
details, which readily arrange themselves afterwards, ‘With pencil in hand 
and fresh for the work, it is then tested, changed, and again tested, which 
is the way to attain the end.’ In accordance with the preceding, the de~ 
sign of preliminary ground plan is most important. If the building te 
built up in the nifd, one may have a general image of the entire work; 
but he cannot proceed at* the same time with everything necessary to its 
graphical representations: @ must commence with primary drawings, with 
the ground plan, and n6t‘ with the elevation of the buioding. Attention 
is given to the growid plan first, and in designing it, the factors of 
the problem before Zeveloped and which influence external and internal 
forms of the building will be considered in the proper place.: 

123,: Plan of Site® : | 

One should then commence with the location and aspect of the building, 
according to art.:€8, arid these are shown on the plan of the site.: This 
exhibits the form of the ground for the Luilding and its surroundings. 


eee. otrtzomon Raooartuons | yor 
- yatveixe, weoutorne eit toast bavoty oir awaxb yflanoteivory st ti 12 
a Tfud-t0o bas sachs Ys enefg eysilin be ateone botelqreines to 
Ms Fr oatass redso Gds acdyied bas .qwode oais ote eyewolsy bas eotueolous 
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BY | whe d ts todo perchare eis ,OD8 ai deri viistosse ei ast shen adz to 
. ites. wpoibute jesal atiaeb begnatio: viis itesea eS apiaeb eas bineda ,toit - 
7: ebLiod ‘eds Yo aot bawor3 bas snetxe giamixorgye ylotsa avig og seb10 ni 
: et OF gets 10 noiteluoise esemixorgys as .aslg moigasol ofl nogak 
ok ak aids eaeex397q wad to bis @d3 4a .botiupet ef gaihliud ed? y¢ be 
:ewolicl es abe yliex 
‘beueved bayou Io seth -.bSf° 
edt fo bexit aeod eved emoot fu teou edd to setic bis wedaun od? tela 
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be uasidstes tot toed I9y cist1es & eidg of bbs ow .totisted? bemissdo eset 
a cae Wot ecisey doifdw joyseesg tot eaoor bus eeloditeey tot brs efiaw edd to 
Date ineioitwe gods nodes o2 od of al bas egatblind to ebnis ivide ed 
pa | wet ‘mode yeiaiimo ni betiupes enotioube: bas emottibnhs scot enisaet aly 
plans we sane: a oe nich oe ” err od ae: wets \ oauresivee ee aor’ capt: 


7 a 


gelititwey wet pidiidnielen bas e@noot anit’ visy , the egnt 
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sane: gatvad ex0bi 100 eyewriese bas ‘oiled vobaith 1 auolha: ae 
Mena s 7 ‘a ; “ine siia 

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a Gein tengieeh ed of etdourta odd ‘Yo moebiequoo yd dud <.atinti obiw nt 
Bis. eng Tia jo sets tocol? Isiot sit ,r9edcstsdo wslimie to agaiolindy bely oex'3 
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a dd 3S¥o goibnedxs: olsts as ne 40 ‘tote oninsazon s of beosig ems anoot 
“vols feomte yqu 

Sappgdih feroned “Col 

Bemme Tkotg neste f eft hi Ulla ioe yas Tonnes aids ni gnibseoorg retta 
yfikbsooos beteaiies toed asd gaiblind to eas ojeainorggs edt r9ste bas_ 
Serem . @d3 no wbiosh'os woqory wade af $i (02-242 of 
payors bas efie att of beagex eud ddiw gaiblind 
BE Sh-tedfodw {SIT -.3%4 of yaibtoovs aelo bax od 
Wd eae'yo to biloa ed tuou doidw sane boacfone efg” 


i A: 


by 
y ee 3 gs we oe ><! 


lay he ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
Cn it is provisionally drawn the ground form of the structure, existing 
or contemplated streets and alleys, plans of gardens end out-buildings, 
enclosures and gateways are also shown, and heights and other conditions 
of the ground are noted and utilized in the best manner.’ The determination 
of the general plan is naturally first made; this requires further atten- 
tion, should the design te materially changed during later studies. but 
in order to give merely approximate extent and ground form of the Luild- 
ingon the location plan, an approximate calculation of area to Le cover— 
ed ty the building is required.’ Ey the aid of the programme this is us- 
ually made as follows.: 

24, area of Ground Covered.: 

after the number and sizes of the useful rooms have Leen tixed on the 
tasis of space requirements of programme, and the total of superficial 
areas obtained therefrom, we add to this a certain per cent for thickness 
of the walls and for vestitules and rooms for passage, which varies for 
the chief kinds of Luildings, and is to be so taken that sufficient mar— 
gin remains for additions and reductions required in combining them to- 
gether.: From experience, this may be taken at 2C to 40 per cent for tuild- 
ings of utility, for ordinary dwellings and private houses, and for build- 
ings with very large rooms and proportionally few vestibules and corri- 
dors, etc., at 50 to 70 per cent for simple and compactly arranged put— 
lic tuildings with two rows of rooms and common central corridors, and 
at 60 to 100 per cent for rich and expensive designs of this kind with 
spacious entrarice halls and stairways, corridors having rooms along one 
Side only.: 

The numbers afford only a general and probable basis and are taken with- 
in wide limits.: but Ly comparison of the structure to ke designed with 
executed buildings of similar character, the total floor area of all the 
stories of the former may be easily computed within closer limits, and 
after the numker of stories has teen fixed, the ground area to te cover- 
ed is found approximately.’ It is to be considered next whether isolated 
rooms are placed in a mezzanine story or in an attic extending over the 
uppermost story.: 

125.. General sarrangement.: 

after proceeding in this manner, especially in the larzer programmes, 
and after the approximate cost of building has been estimated accordiny 
to 4rt.: 90, it is then proper to’decide on the general arrangement of the 
building with due regard to its site and surroundings, and it should then 
be made clear according to art.: 117, whether it is to form merely a sin- 
gle enclosed mass, which must te solid or opened by one or more courts, 


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was ‘sonal. 

_BHOoS Bie) nadapa ofl asifena od} .oiquie. atom od? ef ifiw sefio og ert 

sted oyfe Tie neo ano Yleet? s1om eft ban .vrode vao ai bes idseo ed ¢ 

eth on agaeeat4 asilitovea isievex ai auoor wt hieée Tedfeyse priniauoo aAsve 
. 3 hse esie. ai ¥igeeta yniyisvy aucot to ezois Jatin hetsqmon seit inplz? 
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end oy ,ghibiieds edd Yo ayriw off to soidvseteini tn bas alied eytsl 
“e61 Yidetovetas tefdo to bas amoitneetesai ened) fo moidsalifig iviliixe 
goer .avewtiese ,2eluliivgeev Io yalisoeanos edi ,aely oti ts adoidieg bales 


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ages edy yiteido absegeb ,nelg ef ao as wig dove ts bebbe cadvio ers 
| _waldgag ed¢ io notsuloe Lt 
: nnn sb san bie ais 26 #d%6q [le to yntedeil ons wats aff ~aiinutess ai 

Teiee, 232 Biostie bas .ncisivibdva Iewrtedei bee atel pevor, ed} eta 
eis To evisg bas saoot to fnomeyastTm ois diiv eon@agoo va pheRmeynaTs 
Sotabroces ni seltete to avtigied bax amcor oti to aizqeh ghixit ,yaiblind 
@eludivesv Yo Saeasynsiis djiv anibessotg mols ,siseasiets avotveiq diiw 
6001 19/%8 tea bebiosb ed of ai sidT .nolsasicunugs to? smoot to -bas 
ited spent wart Lind of Beomstine to bre: emoot ieuicn iro od¥ to aoke 
io xot bas bregrir | ot paoce xine @intages <.tenned odt to esoqutg eft” 
da teqoay | deeaiupet xliteepatt ets segeis 

i to dug feiineuae as astol-,.ofe ,cyswiisda 
eitoibai ylisuay seonaténs to bas eiisd Yo 


106, : ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION, 
or whether segarate wings of the tuilding are tc Le arranged, and these 
are to te connected or detached, or finally, whether the whole may have 
an equal height, or whether some parts of the tuilding are to te lower 
and others are to Le made higher.: 

1cé.: Ground Plan,: 

Passing from general to details, from great to small, we then have to 
determine the principal rooms and the rooms subordinate to thex, what rooms 
Lelong together, and which are to Le separated, or Lriefly, how and where 
everything is to ke most suitablt placed on the plan. Keguirements in 
detail and advantages and disadvantages of the intended arrangement are 
to Le considered together, and since it is never possitle to have every- 
thing in equal perfection, the important must take precedence of the un- 
important; accordingly even in the sketch cround plan, chief rooms are 
te Le distinguished from others, that they may Le recognized at the first 
plance.: 

The protlem will Le the more simple, the smaller the number of roons 
to Le combindd in one story, and the sore freely one can arrange then. 
even combining together similar rooms in several stories presents no di- 
tficulties, compared with those of rooms varying greatly in size and cur- 
rose, to Le arranged Leside and atove each other. Not only depth, tut 
also heizht of the rooms will then sometimes te dissimilar, and interru,- 
tions of the stories Lecome necessary; form and construction of the struct-— 
ure and its lighting will be more difficult, especially in rooms teneath 
large halls and at intersection of the wings of the building. Upon the 
skillful utilization of these intersections end of other unfavoratly lo- 
cated portions of the plan, the connecting of vestiLules, stairways, rooms 
with skylights, light courts, etc.,, with adjacent subordinate rooms, which 
are often added at such places on the plan, depends chiefly the success- 
ful solution of the crotles.: 

In designing the clan, the lighting of all parts of the building deter- 
mints the ground form and internal subdivision, and affects its ,enerel 
arrangement.: we commence with the arrangement of rooms and parts of the 
Guilding, fixing depths of the rooms and heights of stories in accordance 
with previous statements, then proceeding with arrangement of vestikbules 
and of rooms for communication.: This is to te decided next after loca- 
tion of the principal rooms and of entrances to buildings; these being 
‘the purpose of the former.: Separate entrances for persons and for car- 
riages are freyuently required, whose proper connection with corridors, 
stairways, etc., forms an essential part of the problem.’ Center lines 
of halls and of entrances usually indicate axes of direction of the build- 


=. joyce’ 7 eer, 
ar 


- AOLTLEO3U0D MATTORTOA ‘3 ae 


' Zh "Sh Z ‘eynibites fedapounos at el Se-sege that ei voaeblontco tieit get 
uy pero ‘(eyioainy edt eewJsist2 avetinetesy aagl ai deriste1y ai >) 


Tc aaa ads yabaoet figisairg ssi as as LWodbers gies y @k gibiivi sis 
“Estlewws smilblind eft to olbbin edt dwwoids $4 0% foilsw 4 ynibrodxs 
tee _— sce thee Ste7s99 aay atgidaas bisixe nelto saxt sbia enoktoegib ow! east of 
eae? | OSS dows 19 Byhibliod gibsset to grinto) - 
a res Vi aotsivts fet: a #4 
gta as [low ee .toissJx9 eft ‘of ebnotxe “Ui teteded aéxs yi cole tv ibd 
Mico, sé lugeitt bus bestinoo gies) ni 22’ eave ‘pmtibited o{2 to toi 

29,06 178 od? yi beauss ,wov0 esnil a fbb iw end ai sieert 10 aisstte ,emio0t 
afo0n bac ewobaia” <830io, teirio ': até nk bexit ef‘etds ai meg ads Yo teem 
“ot déin ylinsdatanco. bas “yp dgatbrdioos | bestdird ee etaig ban” sebaiate Los 

fewJiourie. agertd to Maxx ord  tokdoiadenca beag bis. sobs bo eingiy “4 lap 
ooh 4 ae lau aed iui edd to atic, evidoe sas eas at dan setd hype sis 2iie4 
Asixs 16 Leigst os ednereida Side mort yaya sof s noe noasei oft? 
Ineiioa2 idous to jaeasitivpes s ai bas, sisi $b ‘eedssi oat molatyibuge 
ete ; “sted s: hetsloiy dom exw. Aviat bus Wiiiisdiva nese ,nold feG4aoo 
sm 44, beverg Pr boa ,t vit ai begolbven” asigioniag btuoty moTt atlugen 
hae ane ete ei “anit say0o bos eexit fis io equsee riders 10 eposiqig? 
eds iad ices seua dia. edt emusesly Js asus! ¢3 Jon yoo Bexk 
plovise wet bas. ,(T .fui) gaiblind eas oi oosqe to woteiv 
to esnit elisw nacto yi noiaivindue tiie esinowted Jaga 

xo Y shoe sf aa a bens s os Joa bar etait apriaages to otae, 


= EAS kee e-* 


“bassin! ‘4 Gelaieti wt 10 aioe bexswpe oils to abs ete eruines ‘eidt ‘Ye 
. aise ‘isdz to sagedgovbise ib big ae aoa vie bidétxe doidm ,aenneadates Bas 
ee ePiosavorbs, “ied? bose ,eaodtus. egedt- yd aitow of ete ai qonetstst :.b0 
| 8 wore dotiv .evedesa weblo to bas oibslisd to aynisiqw one angiasd at 
Pets. sfonks3 vdd Yo tngweyad rad gil ,2exs yd weieivibdua inaiwtemmys ylbcais 
ee mi Saepive: @i 2247 | 22x68 to sesaye orig coniayosak d1ogqe to eiaiong isa 

Pe, -jourse be queny geet Ait orn to LLaae ag ago gah “onls dea jane fg Yowtsh 
: | pduloeds ot eoneus tes ne ‘edeb doua  eseasu Yoise tiedi ai seve! ta ede 
hyies side? edd wi nevi: ei motaye e4/-103 sided o se Deas ewasen io sinu 
ane Lisae yiev Svod “de dade avola anid liad to nee is jon a3 {OOF + ite 
ioe ads 20 oisoa ‘eds wana of ei linadg ei $i asodsseib -isixe egw ¢isy 
= iris wisi tissue bas “pha qoris eivdediua yd ‘aeels aad 

fy Oe ieaei Frases gannderar meiell ‘,88f 


een dealin od ot @k elakas: laasasuit 
ip aban ove aefoseds | shenptest ‘Yiisd 


Res: ARCHITECTURAL COmPCSITICh.,: 
ing. Their coincidence is indispensalle in monumental Luildines, Cut is 
tc be preterred in less pretentious structures. The principal exis of 
the building is gerpendicular to its principal tacade, the transverse axis 
extending paraliel to it through the middle of the building. rurailel 
to these two directions side axes often extend through the centers of ad- 
joining or receding buildings on each side,: 

127, Cutdivision Ly axes... 

Subdivision ty axes kenerally extends to the exterior, as well as the 
interior of the tuilding, even if in freely cowtined end irreguiar grounc 
forms, offsets or Lreaks in the middle lines occur, caused Ly the arranze 
ment of the glen.. If this te fixed in its chief points, windows and doors, 
colonnades and piers, are arranyed accordingly; and consistently with re- 
quirements of order and good construction, the axes of these structural 
parts are equidistant in the respective parts of the Lulicing, unless « de- 
finite reason exists for varying from this. adherence to reguiar axiel 
sutdivision facilitates desi,;nin;, and is a requirement of architecturai 
composition, when suitalility and truth are not violatea therety. This 
results from ground principles developed in Div.’ I, and is proved ty mas- 
terpieces of architecture of all times and courtriss. Yet the system of 
axes may not te taken at gleasure.’ The unit must result from the sukdi- 
vision ct space in the building (art. 97), and for structural resscens it 
must harmonize with suldivision ty cross walls, lines of piers, compart- 
jents of vaults, etc., und not Le based upon 3 mere fancy.. 

That one may go too far is shown Ly the designs, which at the cezinning 
of this century were made on the sguared system on the theories of Lurand 
and neinbrsnner, which exhitit advantages end disadvantages of thelr meth- 
od.’ Reference is made to works ty these authors, ard their predecessors, 
to designs and writings of Falladio and of older masters, which show a 
rigidly symmetrical subdivision Ly axes. The arrancénent of the grinci- 
pal points of support determines the system of axes. This is evident in 
lerger clans, tut also agpears in smaller and in freely grouped struci- + 
ures, at least in their chief wasses. cGuch data in reference to atsolute 
unit of measure used as a basis for the system is given in the Table ( 
art.: 100).: 4 comparison of Luildings shows that with Loth very small and 
very large axial distances it is rossille to mane the scale of the Luild- 
ing clear by suitable grouping and subdivision. | 

128.° The Elevations and Sections.- 

After the axial subdivision the trseatcent of external facades and of 
internal sections is to Le arranged, and when the ground plan is sulstant- 
ially designed, sketches are made comprising main lines of facades and 


ae 


hs, re 


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Paid ‘weebic [lg mo bede adn goth itive 8 


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me | 


~ 


ws ail eon lg Os itis gale liad atid to. aixs plea ads bredke ot .Yiieesqiamaye 

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tet - yiribtios edd to aolingnatso bne agnibavoriva, edi of biayet af Botds 
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$ 


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iagk toabeg 


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ean xg serevenet © ae geri edd dete eine sion edd wo boos ly gated she f | 

‘Gan ha soonnoo gited ‘ffs ,eebscst nay hus Sbie edd sto signs odd te @ Dae I 
ae addos. nt ethyl gniltes “ys badtgil ors siist adT \easotinte leqtentag ens 
Pe ie 9} eone tice Inaniedee 


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Mes gals ig o18 dotdw Nyce oat ae aagoot a’ S108 VSS ‘babe netori tl aie doef we ye 


a sxobiti00 bee ‘eludivady add basis "ONE ae i 
rookie tie soayataesansutbe does 


eiereged © iiiw ebaotia te etinayaes & tud aatiate 
ak beoe fq y lime taevaos gaou ot bas ,bextupen 


eons Ad acid ‘ylfensetke ‘eldideooore ylioetib fe 


104. : | ARCHITECTURAL COMPGSITION.: 
of sections. : when the design has progressed so far, a perspective view 
shauld be made for a detached tuilding before it is worked out further; 
valuatle indications are thus olLtained for proportions and treatment of 
the architecture, which cannot te properly resented by the élevations alone, 
Zor its importance, this will Le discussed in the nest Livision. To il- 
lustrate and develop the ground princépal of the designing, plans of some 
executed buildings will here be given, to indicate the methcd to be fol- 
lowed in certain cases.,: 
a.’ Building detached on all Sides. 
1.: Freely Grouped.: 
1<0.: Castle Stordalen in Sweden. 


J However unrestricted may Le the pian of a building, the design gener-. oo ew. 


evavitind] yshows an endeavor’ td “arrange the principal parts of the structure 
symmetrically, to extend the main axis of the building, and to clace its 
different masses according to axial subdivision.’ This appears in Castle 
Stordalen in sweden (Figs.: 176 to 177).: The illustrations give no inform 
ation in regard to the surroundings and orientation of the building.: Yet 
the Lest facade is evidently the princiral front, symmetrically arranged 
about a chief axis A 5 extending through the entire building.’ The prin- 
Cipal apartments are evidently placed there, and ere arranged on a trans- 
verse axis perpendicular to 4b. In addition to the tasement story, the 
Space requirements of the problem are satisfied ky a ground story, and 
a story in the hansard roof.’ Other conditions of the programme permit 
an arrangement of the plan by grouping social rooms and family rooms on 
the ground and first floors around a common hell from which they are di- 
rectly accessible and form a congplete whole, but so connected that the 
principal apartments could Le used without being disturbed by the house- 
keeping or by passage of servants.: 

with the location of the chief rooms on front, the main entrance and 

carriage porch are connected with the corridor and vestibule, the three 
latter being placed on the main axis, with the first on a transverse ax- 
is C D at the angle of the side and rear facades, all Leing connected by 
the principal Staircase.’ The halls are lighted by ceiling lights in toth 
SREP Leni: But i servant's staircase with a Separate external entrance is . 
Pea nad, Pa 18 most conveniently placed in the side wing to effectual- 
4 isolate kitchen and servant's rooms in the Lasement, which are also 
directly :ccessible externally from an area.’ This produced the plan in 
Fig.: 175.: Around the vestibule and corridors are grou jed the social, live 
ing, and sleeping rooms, of very imposing: dimensions, and to which on ex— 
traordinary occasions could ¥e added the best rooms of the Manserd story. 


Bhs Te ‘ vgn mae) Tt). Cam ees s, h 
seule i te | mt ee sities Jog PT aod. (alah ri te 
sak ‘voaototen cea nt Eeivahive edd dtiw redta? of of YIseReoennn a $f 
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Sse nh | | indians geen inolijesays | 3 
.etaqévld te anndbaswen .OSf 
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(we ((28r of OSI _.2gi4) sebie Lis no eer goiblius begremm \yllsoliies 
ois eteatia’ ‘aot ud bebaved sila s no ,eametyots etd, to athameitlupet 102 
tie na [¢ bauory: to Iaeagoleveb sort Jud .eebie L's ac estt abaasa ysiblind 
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we req ll Lie .  feety eit jeanadzogni asi sot ..teyo? edd bas linc twlisway ae 
a is abd cite to ave lovely netot bos 3 O bas o « 86xe Yoito owd mo boosh: 
nats : 1900 Gilsquses *“eyot wit to bas [isd I[lema.en? to sortsool ed? aad 
re Le a aptajeaaya ¢ 8 of folloim,y wese sisaibiodve owt no.abae aser bos daoit te. 
‘page S.fEi oO dibiw isidoi hedirosetg odd aort neodT met I wt baqvoty ylia 
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8 bas ayswitete fenotdibbs owe: pene bedekars bas sayol ens diiw leoks 
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myer ais bas $& ,aebtivites? tno1y yTey Yo geen al ..bevomos od yliaaa | 


a eure ee afd t9 nokee taba Loresvy not ah se ed mam . 
area mm ‘Wi syns | of wae hie 
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et i e+ + . ‘ 
. ae be 


alt GP. toe 


ROR rECRITECLURal OCael Sit IC 

It is unnecessary to go further with the BEecatieion in detail; reference 
to the illustrations is sufficient, which exhibit. en effective elevation 
of the side facade and the ground plan.: 

The total utilized area of ground and first stories is 11£9¢ sa,° ite 
an average of 5¢48 sq, ft. per story; ground area covered is 7235 SG, . war 
hence 20 per cent additional is required for walls and rooms for passaye; 
vestibules are not included in the latter but put with useful rooms.: ond 
terraces, hall over the light court, etc., are Sf ee 

; & cCymmetrical Arrangemert.: 
120. Gewandhans at Leipzig.: 

The nex Gewandhans at Leipzig is a very instructive example of 2 syn 
metrically arranged Luilding free on all sides (Figs. 17€ to 181).° as 
for requirements of the programme, on a site Lounded by four streets the 
building stands free on all sides, Lut free developeent of ground plan 
was impossible, since its treadth was limited tc 181.2 ft. The great con- 
cert hall is the starting point, and fulfilment of space, accoustic, and 
esthetic requirements is the aim of the artistic design, tverything else 
is only a means for the end but is scarcely less important practically. 
4ll influential factors led to the arrangement of two continuous stories, 
lacing the great concert hall in the upper one, t,gether with the adjoin- 
in gsmaller hall and the foyer.: For its importance, the preat hali is 
placed on two chief axes » & and © D and forss the nucleus of the tuild- 
ing., The location: of the small hall and of the foyer naturally occurred 
at front and rear ends on two subordinate axes parallel to C D symmetric- 
ally grouged in I form,: Then from the prescrited total width of 121.2 
ft.,later increased to about 187.7 ft. as much space as possille was as- 
signed to the width of the great concert hall, bringing these halls in- 
to comvenient connection with each other and with the round story: 

It was most suitable for the given arrangement to place public stairways 
at both long sides and leading to different parts of the Luilding. Two 
other stairways beneath the stage are placed on each side of the organ 
niche, and permit unobstructed access to the orchestra room and the solo- 
ists room, and longitudinal corridors lead to those for the ruLlic letween 
the stairways, great hall, and foyer.: The smaller hall] is placed synmet- 
rical with the foyer and turnished with two additicnal stairways and a 
stall vestitule, and is located within the area of the old building, to 
be chiefly used for chamber concerts. but since evening entertainments 
are generally held therein, it is arranged that the stage and seats can 
easily be removed.: In case of very great festivities, it and the foyer 
can te opened for general admission of the spectators, 


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peng eon? Htiw eludijeey & ‘vatemtotreq das eomethue of aaerge biotite 
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p .doetie eidor bre (vidéos a espbory (08% 
. teow tou bewessa , ‘tied deonoe jeedty odd .iteteb ovidenedee iuwddit 
| his ‘ate f -t0 packs ioqory ‘outs yletenixorggs eed ,aniliee edt to stoqque te 
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es 9 red sreDa0o ve (lowe edt ;.aregaia, OOS ons sweeloto to eteduem hl gol 
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Bes 


halts BRoot oat at | oat to d3qeb. sana a ey fat to. ‘ae 
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| apt eerross. eens to gothiiud 5 berinpes doisdw atedose? olsmed, eve 
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Pe Se 


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} bas poo noaberel 5 Lait 3 cn id iar aan sebsek setup 


ron oe Se LS bee 


108. : ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, ° 

This simple and clear arrangement of plan of principal Story produced 
one equally satisfactory for the lower story,: The latter was required 
to contain certain rooms in Froper sequence, suitable to both admit and 
afford egress to audience and performers.’ A vestibule with three doors 
for persons on foot combined with two Side vestibules for @arriages to 
form the entrance hall.- Next this on the main axis 45 is the large hall 
with clothes room for gentlemen and ladies, then the vestibule to the 
smaller hall, and on the transverse axis are entrances to main Stairways 
and to the boxes.: The external and internal architecture (Figs. 179 and 
160) produce a truthful and noble effect, 

without exhaustive detail, the great concert hall, measured Letween points 

of support of the ceiling, has approximately these Proportions of length: 
Breadth : height :: 4: 2: LE (124.5 : 68.3: 47.9 ft), and including 
all boxes provides 1688 comfortable seats with Space on the removable stage 
for 104 members of orchestra and 200 Singers.’ The smaller concert hall 
has nearly the same proportions as the larger, or its length : breadth : 
height :: 4: 2: 14 (75.5 : 27,6: 28.2 ft.), and contains 843 confort- 
akle seats.’ For each seat in both halls (1588 + 842 = 2221) there are 
allowed an average of 13.15 to 12.45 Sq. ft. of gross ground area cover- 
ed by the building.: If we compare the net useful area of the principal 
story (the lower story cannot be considered ) with the ground area cover- 
ed, an addition of over 75 per cent to the net useful area is required, | 

b.: Building not detached on one or more Sides, 
1,; Rectangular Ground Plan,- 
1é1.- Girl's School in Hamburg. - , 

The Girl's School of St.: John's Convent in Hamburg is represented in 
Figs. 183 and 184 and was built adjoining neighboring houses on a site with 
frontage of 141 ft.: and average depth of 180.5 ft. The rooms required 
were class rooms for about 800 girls, singing and drawing rooms, gymnas- 
ium, large addience hall, residence of the director, and rooms for sev- 
eral female teachers,: which required a building of three stories, From 
the restricted site of the building, it is obvious that a front wing with 
two rows of apartments and central corridor would not adequate, (arts.: 
124, 116) making it necessary to add a wing extending the entire depth 
of the land, and consisting of a single row of rooms with side corridor, 
Local conditions ( orientation and good lighting) made the location of 
this wing on the main axis AB of the building most suitable, thus pro- 
ducing a ground plan of T-form, placing most class roons On the open and 
quiet garden front, with the great -hall, the residence, and some element~ 
ary and seminary classes on the principal front. 


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ae ee ys a” oP ms atom. | owe ned . iO 


ig i Wor t20"MOD etme tery | “aur 
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ont pete elgnte @ as betawoo eaied {ied eds) pesayan se biwoty ladad 
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ae fedw vliaineges. @tie ed¢ to ds One 20%), abfuans yLleveg wiht? 


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ais wy Yee = 


107, ' ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. - 

with three rows of double desks and comfortable aisles, depth of the 
class rooms was made 21.7 ft.; those of gymnasium, drawing room, and of 
class rooms above these and in rear of the main building were 23,0 ft.; 
that of front elementary class rooms was 20.4,: The central corridor be- 
tween them for direct communication was rather narrow at 12.2 ft., the 
total depth of front building being fixed at @2.4 ft.Distance from street 
line being settled by the house adjoining on the right, the great hall 
was first placed at right angles to chief axis 4 5.: It could then be set 
back to line of house adjacent on the left, and the entire depth to rear 
wall of the corridor assumed and a-central scheme adopted, for which 121,2 
ft.: remained after cutting off two class rooms each on at right and left.. 
Since the hall extended through two upper stories, its height was satis- 
factory.. 

It was evident that the entrance and main stairway should also ke ar- 

- ranged on axis AB, the latter being at intersection (Art. 126) of front 
«building and rear wing,....The outlines.af the wing were then laid out after 
width of corridor was fixed at 9.2 ft.: and total width at 2¢.7 ft. To 
this corridor was added at the rear,stairway and a toilet room for each 
story, with covered portico before class rooms for use during bad weath- 
er.: For central corridor of front building, stairways were likewise in- 
dispensable, especially in the upper stories.: They were placed at each 
end with light courts and were further lighted by skylights.: This was 
the general arrangement of the buinicing, sufficiently illustrated ty plan 
of passages (Fig.: 182) and by plans in Figs.: 162 and 1€4.: arrangement 

of ground story and subdivision of the class rooms, living rooms, etc., 
do not require further notice.’ 

For each seat there is allowed about 16.2 sq.ft. ground area covered 
by the building, including rooms for common use and the residences. If 
the three stories are taken and the average utilized area be compared with 
total ground area covered (the hall being counted as a single story), the 
latter exceeds the former ty about 90 per cent. 

2.: Partially O,lique Ground Forn.: 
182.. Palace of Archduke Louis Victor in Vienna. . 

This usually results from the form of the site, especially when bud ate 
ings are erected in blocks.’ This is the case in Palace in Vienna (Figs. . 
185 to 188).° This site was very res stricted in both location abd area ( 
15600 sq.: ft.:) and a further requirement was made that the palace should 
have external similarity and height with the residence of Von wettheinm, 


then being constructed on the opposite corner. 
To explain the general plan, it is only necessary to mention the require- 


ek 2 J Sa «pani cama Jatt Oa TENOR si eet) ae 
3 Jil ‘ie eh dig eis ame tgo%q edt to etnes 
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Atha. 


108 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN.: 
ments of the programme. ' 

above the cellar story with its kitchen and store rooms, laundry and 
bath rooms, a ground story for stables, coach house and servants’ rooms 
was required, then a mezzanine story intended as a part of the living rooms 
of the archduke and his household.’ The first principal story was taken 
for the social apartments, the salon of the Archduke and the living apart- 
ments of the Archduchess, the second principal story containing other liv- 
ing acartments for the household and the servants, The entrance hall, 
the principal stairway, and the festal salon in the first principal story © 
were designated as the chief objects for dignified architectural treat- 
ment.’ The salon became the starting point.: Its location directly on ich- 
wartzenburg Palace, the entrance hall beneath A, the direction of main 
axis AB, all are naturally indicated,: At the right of the festal salon 
could be placed the dining hall, dtached from the living apartments.: The 
joderate depth of the latter required the same depth of the salon on account 
of the limited space, but the salon obtained width required for external 
appearance of the building by the flanking angle bays on the principal 


facade.’ The projection of this part of the building was fixed by the in- 


ternal arrangement and by the different depths of the two halls from the 
continuous middle wall,: 

after these principal apartments had been previously fixed, there re- 
mained the salon suite of the Archduke and the apartments of the archduch- 
ess on the fronts on Ring St. and on Pestalozzi St. 4 wing could then 
be carried along Ring St.: facade with a depth of 29.5 ft. and one along 
Pestalozzi St.: 24.6 ft.: deep, the obtuse angle teing properly adjusted 
by the circular bay.: The plan was thus externally completed. To plan 
a spacious and beautiful court and a grand and dignified stairway in the 
remaining internal space was no slight problen.: without injury to gen- 
eral effect, this was solved by placing the staircase at right angles in 
the corner of the palace, starting on transverse axis of entrance hall, 
leading through mezzanine story and ending there. according to the li- 
mits on the place, a wing 2@.2 ft. wide was cut off, and the conservatory 
was made 21.4 ft. wide on the Ring St. front,with a vestibule 14.1 ft.. 
wide behind the festal salon,. 4 narrower corridor opposite forms the fourth 
side of the court which is 4@,0 ft. long and 3¢.0 ft. wide, its walls com 
posed of arcades with three and four openings each, and windows for light- 
ing the apartments., That corridor leads to a side staircase placed te- 
hind tween sides of the angle end at apex of the internal triangle pro- 
duced by irregw arity of the site.; The remaining space is employed for 
adding subordinate rooms and a light court at the rear of the adjacent 


MOLT TZ OSHO0 JasNTOSTINGHA | | ‘OE 
em souate 
ed etal ie. \ysoga jaqtoatse edt to Inenegnerse fateney eft af alist 
saaee abeooorg Listeh ai aoieivibdys .88t | Bit .segsaasg eid to nelg off 
ak faosedal le Losgae tO -,yrore sano gis edkl .yrluortith sedi? se 
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2 tin betevoo ees bayorg eld to goatieyaoo A. . ie dong ant. to: atnomastug 
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a |e eg Moke ivid ox99 ene ni Deue oes er) um benego af yew adtT 
aie gars | 
ae WI MOlSIVId 

an  AAUTOSTINOMA JAMAATHL GuA JauAaTKS 30 Tuawnae? 

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ca a Ri Ase ap ; am : | | iy alah Re ae 2 oo ke ef | 

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a yet esiusamue ylietad of taed od [fiw 31: Joe tts olderius fewbivibal 46 


ane ‘dttOg Seat edt no ridtaty id untbsoerq ety WE bai 
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— quorg Isitoetidors 98 eid Yo isaeneses aixe aien's grole gobtteog tao 
el ti RE ee TOO EE Te ae hee ee rn 


109, - ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
structure, 

This is the general arrangement of the principal story, illustrated by 
the plan of the passages, Fig.: 188: Sutdivision in detail proceeds with- 
out further difficulty, like the lower Story.’ Of especial interest is 
the ground story with noble entrance hall, the commencement of the steir- 
case, and the carriage ressage from Schwartzenburg Place to Pestalogzi 
st.: The principal facade is shown jn Fig. 187 and corresponds to the re- 
guirements of the problem.: & comparison of the ground area covered with 
the utilized area is limited to the principal story and an addition of 
EO per cent to the latter is required.’ The limits for these explanations 
would ke exceeded, if the method for designing were discussed further. 
The way is opened to ke pursued in the next Division, : : 


DIVISION IV.- 
TREaTMENT CF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE, - 
By Professor, Jgesph Buh] mann. | 


Chapter 1.: Forms of Facades. 
123,.: General, 

The appearance of a tuilding depends on two factors.’ The first is the 
form of its entire mass, which primarily impresses itself upon an obser- 
ver, and at a distance this is alone perceptible.: Secondly come the ver- 
tical surfaces of these masses, usually only visible near at hand, ,which 
by their subdivision and ornamentation produce the particular impression 
or individual artistic effect.: It will be best to briefly summarize that 


said in the preceding Division on the first point. 
The mass of a building may be united or closed, may be divided in detach- - 
ed masses or be grouped. 4 closed form produces a simple prismoidal, ey- 
lindrical, or pyramidal mass, if the programme proposes a very simple pur- 
pose, fulfilled by a single room, or if similarity of required rooms per- 
mits them to be combined in a single united form, indicated by reasons 
of construction and suitability.: A grouping of the entire building occurs 
if the building programme requires a number of rooms, serving for unlike 
purposes, and which can properly be arranged only in separate buildings. 
The organic connection of the different rooms requires a combination of 
the masses into a single architectural whole.: by prominence of the chief 
portion and subordinate annexing of less important rooms in a symmetri- 
cal position along a main axis, diversity of such an architectural group 
produces a united and organic appearance.: Since the arrangement of rooms 


ee a lee ve wei iy i fi yea FA my ae | Ort iy 
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é ohana od vine puro? ieiveesae stedt ag nsp nottavele Bas ela Jade 
ein ian a iytedtes 
Tee “guns iw: bednasd ed vebeos? to onto! soteivid eid? to sesgedd ab £1 
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a beqioia to efolitog gaimtot avaasi leqwiostidow ets2sgea 10%, to Bgad 
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ae eh ed anio% fosutourse, tnovetiib ed? to.nofesetqze old ms dana bas wolv %o 
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i: acs a , waeonou Lat Lenreaxe on ot 


 ohehy 6 gy belfouttence Ktone tha Cilia dn ardent bi Sides ine idave eds 
bi) dbs ao \foteaerqa! Letcemsinow on eowbotq ameed bis eteoq usboow to tow 
nub “plovite fox eds yd bats aivineise ody To ysilivewh tigtle edd to dageo”” 
ae nanan dabh baie fot ‘Meat! aottovtdenco: ad? to nagneate isms 


hy ah Ft ge es Eera 3 
hho yet to soteivtnive fsotsae Ss aia 


a | er rine beusbea then: edd ‘to a terenetaing fstnonvion add akaiiibas uliek 
aaed sve liqeiags WernsH @ at cotsevele fsobtrey oft asbivibiua 
ated 2 ods eid edt to) wolv eidt ot a dl Moke 


110 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN.- 

affects the external form of the entire building, it is clear that in de- 
Signing the ground plan, the external appearance must be considered, so 
that plan and elevation can in their essemtial forns Only be designed to- 
gether,- 

If in Chapter 1 of this Division forms of facades be treated Without 
examination of the different purposes of the building, only in regard to 
external form, this can only cccur for Single and detached forms of build- 
ings, or for separate architectural masses forming portions of grouped 
structures, The. grouping may here be considered only from ordinary points 
of view, and must in the expression of the different structural forms te 
treated in accordance with the diverse purposes, ° 

134,° Construction of External walls, : 

External surfaces or facades of every structure are first dependent up- 
on the construction of the external walls,: This requires a vertical pos- 
ition of the walls, their diminished thickness upwards with resulting bat- 
ter or offsets; it, further requires placing the openings above each oth- 
er and a firm and pier-like treatment of structural masses between them, 
Even protection of the external surfaces by a projecting roof or cornice 
may under some circumstances be considered as a structural requirement, 
That the external walls of s structure may produce a durable and monument- 
al impression, they must have a combination assuring the greatest possi- 
tle strength, and materials must be employed possessing great resistance 
to all external influences. : : 

As the simplest construction a superposition in courses or a stratifi- 
cation of the material, and natural or artificial stone has proved to be 
the most suitable and durable material.: All walls constructed of a frame- 
work of wooden posts and beams produce no monumental impression, on ac- 
count of the slight durability of the materials, and by the relatively 
small strength of the construction itself. Yet upper terminations of fa 
cades may have a projecting frammed construction in simple corbelled forn, 
and this may be so treated as to harmonize with the stone wall in regard 
to durability.: 

125.: Vertical subdivision of Building. 

The artistic treatment of facades naturally follows the construction; 
it first strives to produce an effect of stakle resistance, which essent- 
ially determines the monumental appearance of the architecture, and then 
subdivides the vertical elevation in a manner appropriate to firm construc- 


tion.: According to this view of the treatment of the facade, there result 


as essential parts of every facade:- | | 
1.: & firm foundation or a thickening of the wall interposed kLetween 


Av if oe 4 : 
; ; ah , ® ie , alee ae by a f 5, 
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4 i. are ‘J, Lae eo « we “7 
Ld ay if 


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aa i ie bad abiw délw 
ea a Scene alles pabriges yileotirer ud eoaqe to emweolone [audios off 8 
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eae ihgieh beeseiont edd dilw 


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eae oak sons istics etoterei? af ti bas ,hoow to setdsldsiae of gered 
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i ys 7 |  0tls aexudeldeine eaote Ri Lao 
a fe .gaiblivd Yo aolatvibdys soonest : 86 

aa ‘ at.  nobetvebdus aedas ieascen natbitod ae to setters mob oat ates 


“es sehene ent wort ebnedxe yiisuen aolsivib {e¢noz tor aid? ntis2aor 
dtod no aeaean odd gitnaests Crdoaaya to to eoesem ‘te linta to sixs as 


oe wh Ltard ods’ to eaoqwy dtin eonsbroocs ni etdaen oft to ¢nomisort Lstooge 


| a goiay at “iseqqe texkt enoiseninies ehia edt @a8m isivtoetinore teat 
a uv ‘ haresesitg utitoeiorg t6 (y8t6ldes tegiel Leivetem tegnotda » aelyne edt ts 
a ie, _gaeds ,49be087 to eagicob ‘behgedxe al ‘Liew edd goinedsyaexsa 10d exeto +o 
| weed, bas Isoitvey oT deem Isxtose edd to tedt of essatbrodys eonsttoqa? 
ee “gees Ot ,ytiny 6 26 wedge of ebsoat edt timteq taum amoletvibdue Ladnont 
a “a ios tieq agi galweat ydexods suod dw bevone 10 bebbs ed A8o gold den 
hand ns a6 eyaibavorwe att oF deessa00 ae eal tava palbtied die 


von ie (tori cong sea eid? iuiely was bas th 
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Betty: ‘emit faevettib to eis doliw 2ea 10D dnote yd hedrogqne rfrervenntd at 


i 40% a4 .bne dose ts anolisainset Sitios Iq bas ,(itsiimtea aid? to asbia - 


sia betsets Kideiz s of Isditog elquie a ‘Bost hagoleveb ed yea alds aah 


n a ms bengiaas ai doldw of sBoeasa lewtoes ido: le toega to dalenoo eknibae— 


111 ARCRITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 

it and the ground.: This footing Lecomes externally a platform or a base 
course, on which the building appears to be built.’ It may consist of a 
strongly projecting base or of a high and slightly projecting offset.: It 
always demands simple form without ornament and the expression of great 
resistance, best produced by using conspicuous and massive cut ashlars 
with wide beds.: 

2.. The actual enclosure of space by vertically aspiring walls, whose 
structure is externally shown by the horizontal courses.: In ashlar mea- 
onyy, a reduction of height of the rate courses upwards corresponds to 
diminished thickness of the wall, and more readily permits this to appear 
with the increased height.: 

&.: The projecting edge of the roof above the wall is supported by the 
uppermost and projecting cour ces of the wall, these together composing 
the crowning entablature.’ In most monumental forms, the edge of the roof 
is exclusively supported by stone courses, which are of different forms 
but compose a homogeneous stone entablature.: In contrast with the devel- 
opment of the base or footing, these upper and prominent courses should 
have a character of the greatest lightmess; they should represent the free 
ending, the uppermost termination.’ These peculiarities belong in a high 
degree to entablatures of wood, and it is therefore natural that forms or- 
iginally worked out in wood should have become, and continued to be typi- 
cal for stone entablatures also. 

136.: Horizontal Subdivision of building. : 

“hile the construction of the building necessitates subdivision in a 
vertical direction, the purpose of the structure causes a division hori- 
gontally.: This horizontal division usually extends from the center as 
an axis of similar masses or of symmetry, arranging the masses on both 
sides of this similarly, and placing terminations at each end. 4s for 
special treatment of the centre in accordance with purpose of the build- 
ing, this may be developed from a simple portal to a richly treated cen- 
tral architectural mass.: The side terminations first appear in using 
at the angles a stronger material, larger ashlars, or projecting pilasters 
or piers for strengthening the wall, In extended designs of facades, these 
endings consist of special architectural masses, to which is assigned an 
importance subordinate to that of the central mass.’ The vertical and hor- 
izontal subdivisions must permit the facade to appear as a unity, to which 
nothing oan be added or removed without thereby injuring its perfeotion.: 

Every building must stand in contrast to its surroundings as an orgen- 
ic whole, only appearing to be connected to the ground by the universal 
law of gravity.: Around the chief apartment for material or ideal uses, 


© eixs L jldaie ype rio pr er eeake pee ie 
opr seca grote: bequory oie anoot sisatbtodye ‘noltiave te edfi 
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- goret ody: oF ‘Hettiaoggo- nt has .dewory to awe! end dgiw eonabroses af biéw qu 
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panew ane r 30 GOneTtoga? leutoeliestat ont bas ashemetinpet lsauseuide 
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eae 8 rr enols eiaemale Isurgortca ebuont eft to ee Sis af FT 
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blind ag Srisbaeqe’ ai doide -,noitouctanos to ebow edt ‘Io dsdd at aoleeetg 
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thse: 4 wehsoat bedsoltang age 
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— eldetiag m10t to SmYQ. esa themretai 8 exedé beos lq Ulineupert sousea Laneh 
sta basd gativebiod :s SaogHos od ‘tedjeyod geedd beyoiqas bas .exad o red 
- tetos wide [swtoowte edd Lore eoughzcoos al .wobsde to footie gaouta a 
siehamstal wd homeo) a e1eH & Q Psa bas toeb :,emtoesinom edt to 
Soe @M wlemil yd x0 \somaod 


112, : ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. - 
through which passes the principal vertical axis of the central portion of 
the elevation, subordinate rooms are grouped along horizontal axes extend- 
ing from the center.: The enclosed Space rises from a firm base and extends 
upward in accordance with the laws of growth and in opposition to the force 
of gravity.: The external surface or facade of the building causes these 
internal factors of the whole to appear externally; it expresses toth 
structural requirements and the intellectual importance of the building. - 
a. Vertical Subdivision of Facade, : 

13”,: kxpression of Construction. : 

If in the design of the facade structural elements alone appear, a sim—- 
pler and severer character will thereby be produced. The particular ex- 
pression is that of the mode of construction, which is dependent on build- 
ing material and kind of masonry. by a construction severly executed in 
even the external appearance, only a very moderate variety of form can te 
produced, and such a treatment of the facade cannot rise atove the rude 
character of mere utility. Yet structural forms may assume decorative 
Shapes and may ke combined with forms not structurally necessary, but 
which only serve for expressing a function, without dropping the rude 
character corresponding to the construction. Decorative accessories, 
used independently of the structural combinations, may lend grace ahd 
elegance to a building otherwise cold and severe, | 

126.: Rusticated Facades, 

Rusticated facades are the simplest and the most monumental form of 
structural facades, and are produced when in ashlar masonry the sep arate 
blocks are decorated by drafted margins and raised bosses (Fig.189). A 
wall composed of dressed ashlars possesses equally in all parts great sta- 
bility; to especially emphasize angles of projections or courses at the 
levels of the ceilings does not appear to be required.’ 4s for heavy mas- 
onry, the base of this form of facade must be massive and strongly project- 
ing. A projecting course of large ashlars may be covered ty a slab above 
a step, thus being transformed to a seat. The bosses of the vertical 
wall may rest directly on this bench; yet the architecture of the Early 
Renaissance frequently placed there an intermediate cyma of form suitable 
for a base, and employed these together to compose a bordering tand with 
a strong effect of shadow,’ In accordance with the structural character 
of the architecture, door and window openings were spanned by arches with 
bosses, or by lintels, if moderate in width.: 

Within the larger window openings is a recessed wall with graceful treat- 
ment in contrast to the stiff ashlar masonry and having an excellent i~ 
fect (Fig.: 190). Like a continuous band or belt with slight projection 


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gE ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION, 
and a gently curved cyma and dentil hand, the Hinaen sill is atfesuivens con- 
trasted with courses of bosses and forms an easy division of the surfaces, 
without actually interrupting their vertical tendency. The window sill 
as a belt-course is nothing more than a slightly projecting and ornament- 
ed course of stone, and its height should therefore coincide with that 
of the other ashlar courses.: The entrance door or gateway likewise re- ; 
quires jambs inside the bosses, and these may be developed from a plain 
reveal to a strongly profiled architrave (Fig. 191). 4 considerable depth 
of jamb is always required to produce the necessary appearance of stabil- 
ity.. No rectangular window in the ground story or in any mezzanine story 
may dispense with an architrave next the bosses. It appears unsuitatle 
to place large rectangular doors or windows in a rusticated wall and give 
them architraves, whose forms were derived from wooden construction, re- 
quiring straight lintels to support the masonry above them. The stability 
of the wall then appears to the eye as if injured Ly an insufficiently 
strong covering of the openings. 

The entablature may always Lorrow its forms from entablatures of anti- 
que columnar orders, which chiefly originated in wooden construction; 
the Corinthian type with its rich subdivisions especially forms an effect- 
ive contrast to the simple rusticated wall.: Yet entablatures which appear- 
ed later in stone construction deserve full consideration in spite of their 
massiveness, The mediaeval cornice of Italian- palace-castles composed 
of tall inclined corbels supporting stone slats was the motive for a cor- 
responding form of Renaissance entablature.: A stone course decorated by 
a cymea moulding forms the base for corbels or consoles.’ These are in- 
clined supports beneath the cornice that recieve an ornamental form, which 
espresses their purposes. Atove the slab and connected with it by its cyma 
moulding, the cornice rises as a free ending.’ Square spaces between con- 
soles are suitable localities for rich decorative ornament in strong re- 
lief.: (Fig.192). If antique entablatures, those most suitable having 
forms much subdivided and rectangular or ogee consoles, be employed to 
crown ashlar walls, they must be treated with imposing height and sever- 
ity to harmonize with the character of the lower architecture.’ By archi- 
tects in the Florentine Renaissance the principle appesrs to have been es- 
tablished, that the entablature above a palace must be made large enough 
to be suitable for a colonnade of equal height.’ For the Corinthian type 
of entablature, this is from one twelfth to one-fourteenth the entire 
height.: A plain frieze is divided from the wall surface by a boldly pro- 
filed course which preferably separated the refined forms of the cornice 
trom the rusticated word.: 


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1i4.: | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

The rusticated wall may in its height be changed from heavy to light 
effect by reducing height of ashlars and projections of bosses in the 
different stories. (Fig. 192) External surfaces of stones may vary from 
a boss of semicircular section to a flat boss with rounded edges. In old 
facades of this kind, the ground story is usually enclosed and las small 
windows.: Yet there remain from the Renaissance period fine examples of 
such facades with great lower arched openings, likewise suitable for modern 
purposes. The completely rusticated facade emphasizes unity of vertical 
enclosure of space and combines different stories into a single form. The 
diverse character of the different stories may then be expressed only by 
dimensions and shape of window openings, while the proper sukdivisions 
and especially the frame-work of the floor, do not appear externally. By 
their grand and simple form and their monumental stability, such facades 
make an imposing impression; yet they likewise possess a monotonous and 
gloomy character. 

139.° Richer Facades. 

4 facade of richer form is produced, if the elements of the vertical 
structure are epparent externally according to their importance. This 
may te done by making prominent the separate stories by limiting telt — 
courses and by ornamental enclosures of their window openings. For this 
purpose forms are usually employed that did not. originate in stone, but 
by their use in structures first tuilt in wood and later in stone, they .-: 
have acquired an expression suited to the latter material. To the esthetic 
character of these forms, retained even in the translation into stone, 
structural jointing of the wall must not be too strongly oppesed or be 
sut slightly contrasted, otherwise insoluble contradictions will arise.. 
but in portions of the facade requiring special stability, en external 
prominence of structural forms is indicated.: The ground story and the 
angles of projections may be treated as rusticated work, thereby forming 
an effective contrast with the smooth wall surfaces of the upper portion, 
which merely appears as a background for ornamental architraves of win- 
dows. (Fig. 194). In such forms of facades, with simple general forn 
having clear subdivision, 3 great wealth of details and ornamental ac- 
cessories may Le developed. Yet the general character of the facade re- 
tains a certain strength and severity, while the general mass of the build- 
ing appeare as a quiet wall surface, where aspiration and Opposition to 
force of gravity are not yet expressed ty special foras. Special treat- . 
ment of such facades will be in accordance with the number of stories, and 
it is then necessary to consider them in this respect. 

140,: buildings of Two Stories. 


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ata to antot sisig bie sigaia yd tesel- ts 10 “tines wsitee yd setos Teds 
¥ - cists bawox edé-at beyoique yismeduavnco ed ysn awobaiv selow ened 
ee  abenseds ““tode teggu eds ai bees..ed oF os aletai f+ sdytese adviv eacde oad, 
aN od a ewéeldsias niesa edécbaé yrote isgicaiag eat te awobaim ‘eid 
f | —qwobaiw edd -io ddgied isefo eid of Ieupe fesel Is 308 38 i few | 
as ng Lis tne mer disened yitoerth becslg ed you eeiiote eniasssen tc ewobaiw 
oe. te aeseod yim .aeitsacoeb exeit? bso1d s dgiw begosanos ad base ems 
rapuls, gated acinzem bedtexb edd ,seodiwe Lisw od baeyed fopiot, emiaup 
7 sdgteass. aoaaod eveeit dguoti? bebnetxe neds ate ebasd exeint bone wezwoo Jled 
Bees baie ni ei owmteldedae to. ax03 asiddaizod edt .siserd duodiis elgas ett of | 
a at ebsosi od? to. figient.edt Yo sxsq démeodiyie-~o7 6! dtasottit-om tdigied 
| > bap. Lisw edt to noktantmzes s ae foetie boog 2 asd Ji dtsened eseist add 
hogs, s sehen edt déiw. een eet, tt elidw ,eoimieo adr of noitianett . ae 
eS ae a ee : apes: ast ERT edt o3 quar0 


- 135 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

In a building of two stories, the principal story may either be placed 
above a high ground story (Fig. 195), or may be placed directly above a low 
structure, then supporting an upper story. In both cases, a Lelt course 
is arranged externally at the level of the floor of the principal story, 
appearing as a high and slightly projecting course or band. The pedestal 
band required between this belt and the window openings has its own base 
and cap. The former is of simple and slightly projecting form, being 
Scarcely visitle above the belt from beneath, but the latter is formed with 
plinth and cyma mouldings. To make it prominent, the principal story de- 
mands an especially characteristic enclosure of the windows. Therefore 
that rich form may be employed, which is composed of a small shrine ( Aed- 
icula), having columns or pilasters and an architrave inside them. Ped— 
estals for columns or pilasters will project from the pedestal band; be- 
tween these and before the windows may be placed slightly projecting bal- 
“eonies with balusters. The strength of the belt course permits the pro- 
jection of a balcony to its outer edge. The entablature of the pediment 
cap appears firmly joined to the wall, if the architrave and cornice ex— 
tend along the wall as flat bands representing special courses of stone. : 
The spaces enclosed between the' enclosures of the windows and these bands 
are suitable for painted or sgraffito ornamentation, or for niches and 
figures, . 

4S a massive band, the belt course is not broken around the angles; but 
the pedestal hand must form a pedestal beneath the angle quoins and it 
then projects from the pedestal as much as the bosses (Fig. 196). If the 
principal story is placed above a ground story, the latter has a wassige 
character by ashlar masonry, or at least by simple and plain fofms of win- 
dows. Arched windows may be conveniently employed in the ground story, 
but those with straight lintels are to be used in the upper story. between 
the windows of the principal story and the main entablature should be \a 
wall space at least equal to the clear height of the window; but subordinate 
windows of mezzanine stories may be placed directly beneath the entatla . 
ture and be connected with a broad frieze decoration. Cnly bosses of angle 
quoins project teyond the wall surfaces, the drafted margins being flush. © : 
belt courses and frieze tands are then extended through these tosses straight ~ 
to the angle without breaks. The Corinthian form of entablature is in 
height arc-fifteenth to arc-eighteenth part of the height of the facade. 
Its frieze teneath it has a good effect as a termination of the wall and 
transition to the cornice, while it forms 'together with the cornice a rich 
crown to the building. 


F iy oe eae | MOTTTEOIMOS es be | 


# 


: | aei1036 lewevet - Se ayaiblivd IM 
saree ei gaote Veeshiciins edd aolroie, ietsvea paix tela dnog. tyne at 
a scr edd as betse'tt giied tetis i add [yt0de bawoth ety «6yé beoalq 
nh aqeset ed vst vio eninsssex Séenibiodve 4 -.{° Tet gli ebsost end 10% 
peut eat no uioda baworg eid dtivn bentdaos bas soirota owd saeds noewsed « 
ot medi vetoda isqiomity eft evods beoniq ed yore elgnia 6 vino tI: s10%, 
“ai esiveco tied s ,tem1ct eff to ewobmiw edd evods soage Lisw eant aistdo 
ot edt of dea ysn09 al .vy1eda tecqs odd to awobnin eft woled -beos lq. qino 
dele aifd s to beeoamos af aids ,100ft odd yaitsolbai seus ted we. 


x 3 ie Lee @oetwe edt to soieivih evitoatie. 10% bheting 
{ eg ti eiode bavwt, edd avods beyne Tis om esitetde teqqu ow? asit otom I 
wool git ,eeostwe Iisgioniig sets o¢n: ‘ebsost edd ehivih of tasd nedé ah 


31 idgisea ed? vi wneviy modd dissued hosd eseiit wort s (agnthivos saya: 


he -od eno tacedgid xo eno efbBia edt peacd els xe bea tastos “do gtisd eae t@_ 


‘ ii4 s git gnied sdgied sasf Yo sno taomisqqu edt bas .suitosatersca: eid gad 


ef i adi xd bea ttesasiedo- ,y10S8 Isqionizg ed? evodA .aeirote aninessem bas 


oo - 
an) - 


4s ~ besser 2 <eevertidowm init eved dino veqqs edd bas noitosiony guoiwe 
* wis it dT _ Sone Issqqs had lite © eveioe: ylisse evedy eaile ylasem ood 


“16 edil basd a yd Sevoenioo ews (beau ti) aqeo wobain edt 
Suc “toad weet} 6 xd etsteldedne cism elf noxt de ts* 8 ee ad Jeua bas 


as 
( oak Ret a, 
eye s Rote ele. 


ae 
a ~ eris to etsaeo oft af ‘yabenwie’ to aixs oti ‘gateotbat vee fetszoq exit 
| to amzot yd bacolone od to dow befavitayi © eveizet yeu ti bes ,sbeost’ 


a betosanoe ed yrose saitsssos s t] .ponssiogal gdiyrsy ciedt diin pons 
tS ef? dguonds arent Yea emtootidow ietiog eff ,yiots basetg edd diin 
3 ey doutiedsa: ‘edt to ddgyten etsy 


a SCTE doivd ywsonibs0 nk gebsost = .8hl 

Bp? bas _asoinwo atisd tot adoind. behivoe diiw yinorsa doitd ni sehbsost 
‘ugeinn edt. to eeisizeilueey of sonaretes dtiw betsett ed ysa pevstiidots 
“eseds tud ,betiotw @3 of ets egcinsgO .yew {edneavnom bas sittaselz s et ied 


ay ae 
we) 
oe 


is Ps 


 bauory dfod emtigmoo yem ewtouisedue ed? .soitio snsmimob brs go ieretce> 


ent evods ylsoeréb beosi¢g e1e ytose sxe od to ewobmiw eff .emiot lentes - 
aR eyed: sods Jaut gwobaiw tewol eft fey .deto sewol eff to atugalidnine J 


ye sent geeb & edit eumtelietie cist oi ddéiw Senior, ad [liv yrode dam. 


cm. “ gaidatsg ys aoifsose) (séheesndto tigi evetavoonia neewied as > 


Fa as Idyteit. ease odd da ed nodd- biveia esinioo etI .avebto semarloo edé - 
pind ai we2iib: yea: tied bas eskimies edz to earot add medw ,saisoo é Lod : 


a ed gaiitit dgiw .enode to eversidors selegassoes. s meft aiddiw joa od yaa - 
i sled te: “enoitesip 74 sigite aerhupet’ ‘fstteism edt Gvertiinors brs dows neews” 
| ees sees, Jon see eiial ire eworoaia edt gad¢ o¢ aavisstooeb bas 


ee a 
Fit 


11a.: 4 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 


ra 


141. Buildings. of several Stories. 
In designs: gontainigg several Stories, the principal eteps is usually. 


placed over the ground story;‘.the latter being treated as the substructure 
for the facade “(Fig. 197).: A subordinate mezzanine story may be interposed 


‘between these ‘two stories and combined with the ground story on the exter- 
ior. If only a single story be placed above the principal story, then to 
obtain free wall Space above the windows of the former, a belt course is 
only placed below the windows of the upper story. In contrast to the low-— 
er belt course indicating the floor, this is composed of a thin slab and 
cyma mouldings; a narrow frieze band beneath then art it bhe height re- 
quired for effective division of the surface. wd <8 oe 
If more than two upper stories are arranged above the ground story, it. 
is then best to divide the facade into three principal surfaces, the low- 
er one being characterized as the base, the middle one or highest one be- 


ing: the Superstriicture, and the uppermost one of less height being the 


crowning and dominant portion. The substructure may comprise koth ground 
and mezzanine stories. Above the principal story, -characterized by’ its © ex- 
ternal forms, the windows of the next story are placed directly above.the - 
entablature of the lower ones. Yet the lower windows must then have a 
Strong projection and the upper ones have flat architraves; if treated 

too nearly alike, these easily recieve a stilted appearance. The high ~ 

est story will be joined with the main entablature like a deep frieze.’ ~ 
Its window caps (if used) are connected by a band like an architrave, 
and must be separated from the main entablature by a frieze band. Surf ac— 
es between windows have light ornamental decoration ky painting or sgraf— 
fito—work. 

The portal usually indicates the axis of symmetry in the centre of the Z 
facade, and it may recieve a rusticated arch or be enclosed by forms of 
the columnar orders. Its cornice should then be at the same height as the 
belt course, when the forms of the cornice and beit may differ in accord- 
ance with their varying importance. If a mezzanine story be connected 
with the ground story, the portal architecture may extend through the en 
tire height of the substructure. \ 

142, Facades in Ordinary Brick -Masonry, 

Facades in brick masonry with moulded bricks for belts, cornices, and 
architraves, may be treated with réterence to peculiarities of the mater-— 
ial in a pleasing and monumental Way. Openings are to te arched, but there 
may be set within them a rectangular. architrave of stone, with filling be- 
tween arch and architrave) The material requires slight pr cjections of Lelts 
and decorations so that the numerous acutting joints may not Lecome appar- 

\ 


+ 


yori bas Risosenos Sawa yodd ento® ones edd io » atesgen 
ba  eanibivom smyo" beds rooeb Yo beeognen ej yam awobaiw ‘has eroob to ae 
ied ines tetios biod ys easel Jootte tiedt yal towborg aonb ‘esi t-~exo ft? 
ae “Isteves To bsg jx6o as emis Listas edt a6 LE totg. Rao 0. bas . daembirto 

evisootie ac eouborg ysa enols dolud ni bas ,@eloanoo gnisoeloxtq dgtw: “ae 
ats soitrto9 aeboow s ditw benidmoo ed bivode eid tug sbbost ond ot HW 0 
J abrrog 70° agmiasyo sgiel ti $i evods yaisosio1g pais ted ies ai¢ of Bedos? 


“Guo to a3 ylitsancoen savm emmuloo xo e19iq yacda bare O73 ent mk ord Bso0 


. 


= 


ae aonsae isae't ko sebsos t soind yd beilqque ots pLebise ne Tiebx3 erode 
“6056 (33 ai bot 


rm, 


re 


al @faeasa70 ‘teilet wd betsioosb od ‘co aehsos? doitd 30 'adottt0g gists? 

>. , tise eds désened 10 giosa bawortg evods eseit? edt yEGs foageo ~8se soo attied. 

a tia Ylreluoisisg et ‘esaixt doit &. .ewobaiw edt noawied aloneg bis .eoideno 

8 bead ed blwoda aidt VTOds bowory ed? af -S5is70q teqe ie svods' oids 

: a ns ‘eakt basis yd dtgeaed bas ,catwoo fled belitorg vfetsstisb B Yd dived 

E waetilends 10. axeib bauer w. bedetooeh ers asfow 16 ‘dfonbea ge. ‘ed? ,everiia 

_ Yo bea0qz0o S13" eonsee isned gizead ods ai baid aids to acitomst20. ‘feo l tinged 

« ett., <fetstoa gifeb oud} sioloe ai bel ismeae atetie: sijoo tres hetiiqliuse 

a — eds-bas #aaseooty [soindoey yd bezinpes gaizo foo fenottheveon bis @fyeke 

to" aenos boob aod agin tes12200 “at BIOLoe edt to extast inenswied bas daest 

eoing isd o8 “feisstooeb to ebom ald? of audo is- tueeg & baal ‘dtolid ede 

soke ah “OES Paewent0 io. ebom ‘isito ye of betrstexg.ad of af tt seoqtyg 

+ onda eiidw ao eettoo BT1e3 bessig seed? yd. beouboxd seiwadtfi ak doette gael 

oe .  eiled enotea base neswied beecloni neie seas Tie iise’ 5909 

Pa, } . pebsas +235 terrye | SBE 

( 789 ei “oshtigige. conude ‘div bejeoo asbaos t te aeagiace To dite zoos “S08 

* gobgs20000- aidT oa aD 5 ys lider, bite ysite Limte asi yd betive x! Eé foeg 

as tO ,216b mo Sdatl ,idail no seb aedtie auetisg 69 stwa s es tsogqe wen 

— yw nedw aero? Inwutoetifors dtiw teed sestnomied 7) .gaive oeddéad 8» 

Bi sor 3 “edd ad digits ayevla gniod aif basqusits at, Jeile1 afi isetie olssit 

@env itsiodaD supigas S18 anoiss 10900 eae t. ot. eevi fou oftiisige 10 Bae0 

| “beau Sis benil olgaie ylao aetuytt yo woniidue edd nidiiw e enw: .epettaieg 

| | gaon fatty ebsx seas wis aermyit atidne edd ,edisq inowetlib etsisqea OF 

a,  w(ieetevnee 39 dish so Sdgil: we 

- etdet bibabi ax’ ansoageg adtl~ysseogss, 4s. abeost eiline as. to aoivstocsd << 

agit’ to A cont gies e168. Beizots. pevol ows aera aonso [sioega af cin aut 
4088 seotone daid A agin’. at.eseisg s'ogod adé ext ee 

ed? ue wig Xi eidezubae aban od ciao aso « ight 

> tp eegh Saa 


ie a oe eee i 20Ge SE Ae vee Ate 


> ae 
et _ 


117 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

ent, and beaded astragals, dentils, grooves on Lands, etc. Continuous frice- 
zes and panels of pilasters must be so arranged on the drawings, that with 
repeats of the same forms they may, appear connected and flowing. architrav- 
es of doors and windows may te composed of decorated cyma mouldings and 
frieze-like bands, producing their effect less ty told relief than by rich 
ornament and clean profiles. The entatlature is comrosed of several cours-— 
es with projecting consoles, and in brick. alone may produce an effective 
crown to the facade, but this should be combined with a wooden cornice at-— 
tached to the rafters and projecting above it. If large openings or porti- 
coes are in the ground story, piers or columns must necessarily te of cut 
Stone. excellent models are supplied by brick facades of Renaissance per- 
iod in Eologna. 

Certain portions of brick facades may Le decorated ty relief ornaments in 
terra cotta, especially the frieze above ground story cr beneath the main 
cornice, and panels between the windows. 4 rich frieze is particularly suit- 
able above an open portico in the ground story. This should te bordered a- 
bove «by a delicately profiled belt course, and beneath ty a tand like an arc 
hitrave,: The spandrels of arches are decorsted Ly round disks or medallions. 
kagnificent ornaments of this kind in the Early kenaissance were composed of 
sculptured terra cotta reliefs enamelled in colors (Luca della Rotbia). The 
Simple and conventional coloring required ty technical processes and the 
fresh and permanent lustre of the colors in contrast with the dead tones of 
the bricks lend a peculiar charm to this mode of decoration, so that for this 
purpose it is to be preferred to any other mode of ornamentation. an excel- 
lent effect is likewise produced by these glazed terra cottas on white stuc~ 
coed wall surfaces, when inclosed between sand stone belts. 

142. Sgreffito Facades. 

For decoration of surfaces of facades coated with stucco, sgratfito is es- 
pecially suited Ly its Similarity and durability (Fig. 196). This decoration 
may appear as a surface pattern either dark on light, light on dark, or as 
a hatched drawing. It harmonizes best with architectural forms when very 
little effect in relief is attempted, this teing always slight in the pro- 
cess of sgraffito.. lotives for these decorations are antique Grecian vase 
paintings, where within the outlines of figures only simple lines are used‘ 
to separate different parts, the entire figures being then made prominent 
in light on dark or conversely... 

vecoration of an entire facade Ly tapestry-like patterns is justifiable 
only in special cases. ‘then two lower stories are composed of light arcad— 
es, like the Doge's palace in Venice, a high enclosed uprer story above 
them can only be made enduratle by giving the: enclosing walls the greatest 


fe . . , 


MITTISOWOO ska TOMTTHOR: ae Bre 
i- * ailihen Yisaswes se belsers yllanteixe ynied eon aaenidytl Joo 18396 
‘i sn bi on ted? debits at 31) asians eds Je efaoy leoitasv coonjed bodotexste 
| bar d-teed isdonsar0 Idyif ue ylao , {few & dove awote seo baka. yas to ou leld 
bts bas etsoifeb io Jeianoo visiew esinedil yea ewobainw ods. to aevexs idows 
sage (lew avetooed of rego1g sese Jon seob st .Ieilet sivod tw atebiod, edifl 
“\880intoo ,etled eviessn seh fi nedw janrecieg viveayed ys ebsost 8 to 2008t 
& etiupe: eysw ls @3aib low gabzolone bis 2eorsi00. .sevettidowws wobdtie bas 
an y¥seane to meilw bas ,1edosustio awo aiedt of getdnogsoT 390 bavorgiped - 
oer wbesaeigxe yldieiv od geun Lisw eis to pemagreng er 
ar ais | ebennolod Yo ineayoland AAD > 
ae —usit's G8 BIeqQe Ils grinolons 942 borwsbienos ‘tst 08 sebsont 25 Bm102 ae 
| E. vebivindve \lerea bas esvsasidow 102 bayer dosd & ec galvies .20n Tw2- tants 
ptteds ybayowg ot7 Adin iisw ed? atosanoo ezed sfT .esointos bas etlod as tie 
b Bae erase seht0d yletes 61s Bax0% dtod fwd aot is-ti sedsniatied ow ts ida tae 
Me “to iieaiset! O2 ete Seci of3 24 .etsminesi Yeati at noid .aaeg add woled 
“fisvq 168 346. @9eaen Lfew Sif to Inigisw dee eae odd otedw ‘,eeods ore seheois’ 
* waoquoo bas Aivdyvy baw soiiextges Incifwv tneaetyey doidw ,emyol Yo bexawog 
| ‘¢ino Ges ipadyss oxdoetidors iavesthel .outowsia betenine 7! Inoinegio me 
alate ai @browye “teeti dseqget of ohis axoli« bats: neiistigas isolttay 
ee. “bisow oohsae isael! Sis bas owieotidow expiint tua “letsoileh 10m pr Kiosed 
Fide Vad rogiue: to Bre abso! to col tease it avoigéawnd s dtiw ebscs? fsehi a6 
Mo euro? ed a@vor1od sd0038) 547 eet trantaob ytiaworo to bas yaitiqas 
rs as: gasaug old ai edb aidt etididxe ebsadiofos edt ex0edw ,owsoetinowm elg 
7 ode ‘ov bévietens+) et noftouttenco isamuloo eiT .(9¢f 2%) .mio? Isebi Seon 
ane doidw ‘jewrot oitedsas ‘teito Wtiw benidaos si bas teilet al sostiwe Las 
"tod bas betniot Yilsweourse- ‘add ‘Yo doi vsIneae get ef? .asebi aslinie ybod 
eee mi ehaoet s vee ov paiseqseaib [isW¥ ond to ezan beatyco ylisingad 
: ie deetisoisnevnce meed ved ,istieisa tadsons- ni bedanigto doide ,amto2 
Ssi45%8 Inebé 5 bevsett naisouttencs t9ddgil & imezetget tui anode diva 
1m al notisvd ie edd” to begclevsh od ys extot to dfisew'« iselatoniaq [ete 
ade sons” ebbéos? Bie) aniot ‘teftixse To iedé zleoxe iw? doite ;{sw offsgie 
i 10829098 vite 10096 tenst”  tocwds" ‘{etuemsax0 tie eseaoy sistoutle oxléas 
Te Tigo" elt of “ytoded ‘toynol oo ‘yeds ii seve eth i ajiw benidmoo e/-ylisse yea gat 
Boi? to ecinit gidgiw geod ylidse esbsost: 9 aequé dowd  .ebnost edt to aziasy 
P) ~outta Laudos 20° geeniéenise bas qéitevee oviseetq aude bac \etios Lamia - seem 
fie yerséilg Bie ‘qandu'ide eiiger0esb 10b isuoisn ¢i°th.te%- amrot fou 
pares ttasie amaoste: weds sechephcted Iytsos?3: bas Sigil sg eaueds ot exwlesd 
“head i So eee ae ASB) get Fo: idisew-ati yi sosdte 


ze ais eweond stom ‘evbaerc085 ony eba0st eng to nots Laogasd ont Lif 


p' 
Py 
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118 . ARCHITECTURAL CCKPCSITICN, 
apparent lightness, these being externally treated as tapestry patterns 
stretched Letween vertical posts at the angles. It is evident that no enta- 
blature of any kind can crown such a wall, only a light ornamental head-Land, 
architraves of the windows may likewise merely consist of delicate and tand- 
like borders without relief. It does not seem proper to decorate wall] sur- 
faces of a facade by tapestry patterns, when it has massive belts, cornices, 
and window architraves. Cornices and enclosing mouldings always require a 
background corresponding to their own character, and when of massive forms, 
the solidity of the wall must be visibly expressed. 

144. Employment of Colonnades. 

In forms of facades so far considered, the enclosing wall appears as a nev- 
tral surface, serving as a tack ground for architraves and merely sutdivid- 
ed Ly belts and cornices. The base connects the wall with the ground; the 
entablature terminates it at top; Lut both forms are merely borders alove and 
below the mass, which is itself inanimate. 4s the last step in treatment of 
facades are those, where the mass and weight of the wall masses appear over- 
powered by forms, which represent vertical aspiration and growth and compose 
an orgenically animated structure. liediseval architecture emehasizes only 
vertical aspiration and allows this to repeat itself upwards in forms, ever 
becoming more delicate. but Antiyue architecture and the Renaissance create 
an ideal facade with a harmonious alteration of loads and of supports, of 
aspiring and of crowning dominant forms. The facade borrows the forms of tes 
ple architecture, where the colonnade exhibits this idea in the purest and 
most ideal form. (Fig.199). The columnar construction is transferred to the 
wall surface in relief and is combined with other esthetic forms, which ex- 
tody similar ideas. The representation of the structurally jointed and hor- 
izontally coursed mass of the wall dissapears; we see a facade in esthetic 
forms, which orginated in another material, have teen conventionalized to 
suit stone, Lut represent a lighter construction treated on ideal architect- 
ural principles. «A wealth of forms may be developed on the elevation in an 
organic way, which far excels that of earlier forms of facades. Since the 
entire structure posses an ornamental character, other decorative accessor- 
ies may easily te combined with it, even if they no longer Lelong to the or- 
ganism of the facade. Such types of facades easily keep within limits of 
great simplicity, and thus preserve severity and earnestness of actual struc- 
tural forms. Yet it is natural for decorative columnar and pilaster archi- 
tecture to assume a iight and graceful character, then producing significant 
effect ty its wealth of forms. 

In the composition of the facade, the decorative architecture is usually 
placed above a high sutstructure with told jointing. Yet this may consist 


pL By EN 
oe at 


ae ee , 
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SS ha oh 


cei foo +9 ig Yo sizes o gnisreqque elionritiseed beqgeie &. 20. 
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— Bi dobro Isasoioo efanta ea to. ,(008 4%) aettosa of haogaatros bas es 
Ue 4%) w@aane elsnibtoiue 6 as beter! esitoda oat soieivib ods dyin be . 
ten x 30 ‘ose Svode a1eb10. wot eve div «woo bats jeri} sdf to asbsosT 
Pee yllsoias gro bas: yireqory 2i ebeosi s 23 [quexe yaiwstiot edd at es sud 
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* =t09{,013 gael « eriugex bas apostiva Liaw odd dtiw wedted etiav yedt soltit 
‘6 eoubor; os 2i ylivolilib jesiset3 ent weds. evods ewiefietse oft To not 
i ted fo Goicasiqui ss sonbotg dom oy a8 co .sbhssei eds to Saendaors bostiay.- 
P oe elunss @ Ss. “aseqgs O83. nea -Jehio does mo beseiq sotesoutse 
= Bidefee usiawots odd ddiw anreininies bas ewe tonttadve efa2 dilw butonea 
wgieic.as betseid bax botebienco ei seh7t0 yowol edd io etude ideine edt 
ae a.gbeost eds: 36.ewwseldsine gaiswois edd atic: teb+o teqay ed? to godt 
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sk ES Rn Gales Sr ce ee > pred (ied enkd 
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119 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. ae 

of a stepped base directly Supporting a series of pilasters or columns, In 
applying columnar orders to ornamental architecture of facades, two princi- 
pal tyres are distinguished. Several orders are placed atove each other 

and correspond to stories (Fig.200), or a Single colossal order is employ- 

ed with the division into stories treated in a sukordinate manner. 

Facades of the first kind occur with even four orders above each other; 
but as in the following examples, a facade is properly and organically 
treated with tyo orders only. Pilasters are fpreteratle to engaged columns, 
Since they unite Letter with the wall surfaces and reguire a less project- 
ion of the entablature above them. The greatest difficulty is to produce a 
united treatment of the facade, so as to not produce an impression of two 
structures placed on each other, but to appear as a single structure, com 
mencing with the substructure and terminating with the crowning entabtlature. 
The entablature of the lower order is considered and treated as a Lelt course, 
that of the upper order teing the crowning entablature of the facade. The 
former has a simple form and slight projection; for the latter it is neces- 
Sary to develop. the frieze with high consoles, which permits strong project- 
ion of the upper portion without making it oppressively heavy (Fig 201). The 
consoles in the frieze support a strong slat on which rest modillions that 
Support the cornice. To pive the upryer order a lighter appearance, it is 
made one-fifth to one-fourth less in height than the lower one. 

Pilasters or engaged columns are generally placed on pedestals; the lo- 
wer order stands on a massive eine substructure, and its pedestals 
have the usual subdivision and :*:. tivn .but the tases and pedéstals of 
the upper order may not project ae Since the unity of the .-cade would 
then be broken by the width of these forms. Therefore these parts should 
have profiles of slight projection, being seen from beneath. A combinat- 
ion of plinth, scotia, and torus is suitable for Lases of pilesters. The 
width of die of pedestal, and that of base of pilaster, should not exceed that 
of lower pilaster. Thus in spite of the slight projection of its base and 
its diminished height, the upper pilaster appears — slender in compar- 
ison with the lower one.. To place a third order above the upper one and ur- 
der thea same conditions would not be possitle, Lecause it would be too weak 
a form, quite unsuited to recieve a crowning entablature adapted to the en- 
tire building. 

Zhe pilasters are usually so arranged that one pilaster is placed between 
two windows. The angle is strengthemed ty two pilasters. windows of the 
principal story are larger and richer than those of the upper story. Their 
general forms are to be harmonized with spaces enclosed Letween pilasters. 
Different forms are employed; round-arched windows and angular pedinents 


eee ROLTIBOGIOO Lam 1. Bb 
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i esetwe Llew tewol eft aot 
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oe edd p39ig Ilew 5 es: sbi ed? Js doocorg yea obsost edd to acsa Liew ene 
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1803 > ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITICN. 
produce a good effect in contrast with horizontal belts and cornices. her, 
windows are set closer, it appears proper to decorate the upper story by 
pilasters and give it the effect of a gallery. The pediment—architraves of 
windows of the principal story form an effective contrast with such an upper 
story with simple forms of windows between the pilasters. For the angle, it 
is test to extend the lower rusticated masonry of the angle up beside the pi- 
lasters.to the architrave as a pier, either plain or with flat tosses. by 
the projection of the upper pilasters, the upper wall surface must be set back 
from the lower wall surface. 

145. Use of Engaged and Free Columns. 

If the treatment of the facade must produce an effect of strong relief and 
an imposing impression, it may have engaged or free coluzns in two stories 
(Fig. 202); bu t we must then abandon a severe organism in the facade. between 
the columns are to be placed the windows as arched openings with archivolts, 
their keystones supporting the entablature. To suit this purpose, these re- 
quire greater projection and caps, The impost caps of window arches may 
rest on small columns doubled in depth and with plain piers beside then, 

The columns then act as structural members and all forns of the order must 
recieve their normal development. For free columns, it is necessary to treak 
the entablature around them by at least half their upper diameter, since the 
keystone of the arch would otherwise require too great projectim. Special 
difficulties arise in the treatment of theprincipal entablature, to crown 
the structure without burdening the upper order ty its oppressiveness, This 
should terminate the facade in an unbroken horizontal line corresponding to 
the straight substructure. To fulfil these requirements, pier-like consoles 
are placed in a high frieze over each column and Support a massive straight 
Slab extending the entire length, on which the cornice rests. In order to 
avoid an unquiet outline at the’ angle, especially in case of free columns, 
the wall mass of the facade may project at the side as a wall pier; the va- 
rious belt courses then extend to this and are carried across it as plain Lands. - 

In accordance with the massiveness of the upper portions, such a facade 
requires a substructure with strong forms and told masonry. It especially 
demands a strongly projecting tase with large forms and a heavy cap with 
thick band, which has a continuous balustrade and forms an extended balcony 
in front of the principal story. Magnificent examles of this kind are 
found in later Venetian facades, especially of Pesaro and kezzonico palaces 
by Longhena. 

146, Use of a Single Colossal Order. 

With a single order, a united and grand treatment of facade is possible 

with severe organic forms; yet this-type of facade introduces conditions, 


tw es oh aD a ro To. 
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121 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN., 

which can generally be fulfilled only in palaces (Fiz. 2C2) and public build- 
ings. To the dignified effect of the exterior must correspond the treatment 
of the interior. with such an order may be combined only a larger and a small- 
er story, so that it always produces the appearance of a Zreat room extend= 
ing through both, merely divided Ly a gallery. but if several stories with 
the usual window openings are to be combined with a single colossal order of 
engaged columns or pilasters, it would be easy to produce the effect of a 
previously existing colonnade, walled up later. The small detsils of window 
architraves are there in striking disproportion to the great details of the 
colossal order. 

with grandeur of the facade must be contrasted strength and simplicity of 
substructure or ground story, Rusticated work is appropriate, either contin-. 
uous, or only on piers beneath the pilasters or half columns, skove this be—- 
ing a massive unbroxen telt course. The sutstructure may also Le opened as 
an arched portico when this is entirely finished in rusticated work. Pilas- 
ters or engaged columns may stand directly on the tLelt-course; they are gen- 
erally placed on pedestals of the same height as the window sills. Pedestals 
recieve a flat band of the width of the window sill; this would appear too 
weak Leneath the massive Lases. 

The main division of surface between the pilasters or engaged columns sheuld 
not Le made below the upper third of its height. 4 delicate, belt course with 
a broad band beneath is appropriate for this. The lower atherefore senerally 
suited to a harmonious treatment of the windows. The rrojection of the fin- 
ish of the windows depends on whether pilasters or engaged columns are flac 
ed beside them. whith pilasters projecting one-sixth to one-fifth their width, 
the window finish if composed of engaged cclumns supporting cediments, may 
project very strongly, and pilasters may project still more. But between en- 
gaged columns and in recessed niche-like spaces, only the pediment can have 
a good effect in dividing the surface, with a Laleony or panel telow the win- 
dow, set in a line with the basSes of columns or pilasters; a strong p¢roject-— 
ion of window finish would fill ip the space too much and make it appear ur- 
guiet. Corinthian pilasters are Lest accompanied ty narrow and ¢lain wall 
strips beside them, which also extend along beneath the architrave in the 
same width, chiefly to detach Lase and capital from wall surface and to wi- 
den the slender and fluted pilaster to form a wall pier. 

Since pilasters or engaged columns stand on a high substructure, the entab- 
lature in the ordinary form agpears too small as a dominant member in contrast 
therewith, and it therefore requires a Lalustrade above, or an attic (Piz. 204) 
which may contain the windows of an upper story. Such a crowning mewker is 
always to te placed on a high base in order to make it visible above the prin- 


P.. 
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Ae. omrolistvab 10 adem tungs isntstoi tO saursepoe eas senceigxs sobie of7 to 

Rr \ @enibliod sotniogds meawtes 295 e008 |. ahr 
‘eh Se edto- mented éligd aobsoet yd betiepey ai aclisvedisaso Is &D9 2G 

12 “of et tevety stowle ‘torsebme 04 Lgecdébiee: utio ai favay aa’ ae 
1% gttitheoss aid? sfisd204 eat jo hensse13 Md Yxleumya to ekxe ent 
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122 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
cipal entatlature. The angles of the facade are treated with piers, dott 
ed pilasters, or pilasters with engaged columns. ith 9 series of eclossal 
pilasters or columns, two-stpoy or one-story parts are easily comnined, for 
in the central portion of the’ facade, round arched windows may occupy the 
height of the entire order; the impost moulding may Leg extended to the 
wings as the window sill of a subordinate upper story. 

147, Balconies and bay windows. 

Balconies and hay windows remain for mention as special parts of the fac- 
ade. The talcony is usually placed before the first u ger story, the telt 
course projecting above consoles, and it is enclosed Ly a talustrade., The 
cortels are organically connected with the wall if they sprin: from crismat- 
ic Llocks connected with the masonry, especially in rusticatec work. ‘he Lal- 
ustrademay consist of perforated slabs imitating wooden lattice after the an- 
tique, or of balusters between the angle pedestals. in order to avoid a 
-heavy appearance, these angle pedestals should be as nerrow as possible; 
they may te strengthened on two sides Ly half Lalusters. The tay window is 
really an enclosed structure on a talcony. It should te light, and grace- 
ful, and constructed with architectural forms, having small columns or pilas- 
ters at the angles, Harmony with the architecture of the wall is only to 
ke attempted in its heighté A bay window may extend through two stories if 
these are comtined together in the treatment of the facade, 

bt. Horizontal Subdivision of the Facade. 
146. Detached Buildings. 
The centre of the buildin. or vertical axis of symmetry is taken as a stari— 


ing point for the horizontal subdivision of the structure. by a talanced ar- 
rangement of parts about the centre and Ly its symmetry, the structure sp- 
pears as if entirely complete in itself. If the Luilding consists of a un- 
iform mass, it is first to Le decided in accordance with the interior, whet h—- 
er this is to te arranged about a central vettical axis or a horizontal ax- 
is. For the first, we may commence at a central axis of syrmetry in the 
treatment of all facades; for the last, this only cccurs on an entrance or 
principal facade. A pediment and the portal mark the centre, while treatment 
of the sides expresses the sequence of internal apartments or divisions. 

14S. Facades Letween adjoining buildings. 

Special consideration is required by facades Luilt between other structur- 
es, aS usual in city residences. an endeavor always prevails to emphasize 
the axis of symmetry by treatment of the portal. This accenting of the cen- 
tre may be increased Ly placing a balcony over the portal. another symmetric- 
al arrangement consists in grouping the windows, employing similar forms, +. 
larger group comprises three or five windows, and may te separated ty spac- 


en lerdaes: sg ebth ‘tone no awobndw ofynte “0 aquozy pena wort de 


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122 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

es from side groups or single windows on each side. The central group may 
become a complete loggia. To mark a clear division in groups, decoration of 
the stories by pilasters cr columns is especially arrropriste. Single sup- 
ports may either indicate this division, or these may Le set in pairs to term- 
inate the wings and to separate them from the middle portion, while spaces 
for the windows are subdivided. (Fig. 205). 

It frequently ,, suits the division into rooms to place the chief entrance 
at one side of the facade instead of at the centre, To then oktain an axis 
of symmetry, it is unnecessary to repeat at the other side the doorway as a 
useless form. It is far better to emphasize the centre Ly a proup of windows 
and balcony or bay window, talancing the doorway ty a larger window. but 
for a door with a simple architrave, this is not at all necessary. Instead 
of the centre only, toth wings might be accented by talconies or bay windows. 
Lack of symmetry with a door at one side is then easily compensated, and 
this may even lend to the facade a certain grace. 

160. buildings with Rooms of Unusual Height. 

If a building contains rooms of unusual height, then for an organic treat- 
ment of plan and facade, larger rooms may te placed at the centre and sutor- 
dinate ones in the wings, It the height of apartments in central portion e 
quals a two-story arrangement in the wings, a common entaklature may then ex- 
tend over the entire facade.: A slight projection of the central portion is 
always best, to emphasize its importance. A series of colossal pilasters or 
columns is suitable for combining che two stories at the sides with the great 
Windows of the central portion in a single organism, The upper arrangement 


may be repeated in the sulstryecture, so that the great windows of the central 
part enrepecsad to great openings For portals, ane the Wings an two Stories 


to the superposition of ground and mezzanine stories. 

To produce an effective outline it is best to treat the central part as 
‘a separate architectural mass, making this higher than the wings (Fig. 20é). 
It then recieves a richer tryatment than the latter and has larger forms. 
For the central gortion, a columnar architecture with great arched windows, 


a free colonnade with pediment above, or compositions like triurghal arches 
are suitatle. For contrast with the more Open middle portion, the wings re- 
cieve broader surfaces and more simple arrahgement of pilasters. 4 great ex- 
aedra or niche covered by half dome is sometimes a very effective form for 

the central part, or a portico covered ty a tunnel vault. These forms require 
massive piers at each side, treated with pilasters or columns, the lower or- 
der supporting the impost moulding, the higher one supporting the entablature. 
Surfaces between them may have small niches with statues, etc. Such a cen- 
tral structure requires an attic above the main entablature, which may te a 


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124 "ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
pediment, or decorative sculpture (symmetrically arranged groups of figures, 
quadriga, etc. ). . 

If such a building stands on a high substructure or basement, this should 


have uniform coursing and treatment to form a common base for the upper por- 


tion. At its centre will be a great portal, or an external staircase to the 
upper story. with a raised and projecting central portion, the wings should 
not be made too short, to not appear too insignificant in dimensions, or te 
entirely concealed by the central part if viewed obliquely. Hence slight pro- 
jection of the central part is recommended, about one-sixth to one-fourth its 
width; the wings will be in good proportion if their lengths approximately 
equal this. With greater length of wings, it is proper to add to them spec- 
ial angle pavilions (towers, etc. ); these usually have a vertical sultdivis- 
ion harmonizing with the wings, and the main entatlatures are at the same 
height; compared with the central part, their lengths must ke less than 
their heights. 

151,° Arrangement of Central Mass of Building. 

The richest subdivision of an architectural structure occurs, when the 
parts of the building are grouped along its main axis and around a high cen- 
tral mass. This central mass is set back from principal facade, usually 
flanked on both sides by courts, and requires on its upper parts a treat- 
ment calculated for being viewed at a considerable distance. A dome first 
reguires a high and undivided substructure, to become visible from Lelow 
and over the surrounding masses of the building. Decorative architectural 
members, like columns, pilasters, cornices, ete., should there be of smaller 
dimensions, than on other parts of the building, and should have the great- 
est simplicity of details. Central masses of rectangular plan, cubical or 
prismatic in form, slightly subdivided and only crowned ty an entablature or 
pediment, moderately predominant over the principal facade. As external sur- 
faces of separate masses, side facades «Kould likewise be symmetrically ar- 
ranged; when quite distant from the central mass of the tuilding, correspond- 
ence to it is not necessary. 


162, Irregular Grouping of Desi tos 
For buildings’yith irresuler surroundinge or in the open country, rigid- 


ly symmetrical arrangement may be omitted if the purpose of the building 
suits this. Yet a central mass must always predominate over the parts, and 
the building ust balance in its masses. ‘One wing may have a form like a 
tower, the other being treated as a horizontal addition. In country houses 
such grouping affords a free plan and harmony with the landscape. Monument— 
al structures with irregular grouping may have a very pleasing effect, if 
surroundings and the form of site give oppurtunity therefor, as at the 


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125 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. ~ 
Erechtheum in Athens. . ; 
Chapter 2 Internal architecture, 
153. General,: : 

The essential purpose of all architectural creation is to produce rooms for 
the different requirements of human society (art.92). The architectural treat- 
ment of the room is therefore placed on an equality with that of the exter- 

ior, if the building is to be a complete work of art. As in facades, so in 
the architectural treatment of rooms, we start from their construction.: The 
form of ceiling is especially determinative, since by this fixes the subdivi- 
sion of the wall.: But the interior requires for its treatment some essent~ 
ials differing from that of the exterior. External architecture must nequire 
a character of durability and stability. This is produced by a severely arch- 
itectural elevation where the material used in the construction appears un- 
disguised by thé decorative form and, réyuires uniform treatment. ‘but in the 
interior, comfort, elégance, and richness, attract persons; works of the sis- 
ter arts of Sculpture and Painting are suitably placed therein and combine 
with the architecture; the entire decoration produces a harmony, which cor- 
responds to the intellectual meaning. Forms and materials required for the 
construction are unsuitable for this purpose. strong and earnest forms on | 
the exterior appear heavy and rude in the interior. The room requires a dec- 
orative covering, which permits the construction to appear in better mater- 
ials, made attractive by artistic treatment. and coloring, or an independent 
dighter ideal construction is executed. Thus different materials appear in 
the decoration in combination with each other, each requiring its own tech- 
nical treatment and forms. Uniformity in forms, as on the exterior of a 
building of uniform materials, cannot usually appear in the interior. The 
room serves purposes more or less material, themselves requiring the arran~ 
gement of special furniture. The internal architecture. must combine with 
this furniture, so that the latter may appear a necessary part of the whole. 
Rising above purely material purposes, the rossibility increases for giv- 

ing the room a strictly architectural .tréatment, as in buildings for divine 

_ worship, museums, city halls, etc. eos oa ny 

A difference is always made between architectural forng used on the exter- 
ior and in the interior of a building. On the exterior, relief of forms is 
increased by direct light, in the interior, light is usually insufficient 
for clearly seeing a form of a single color; polychromatic treatment must 
therefore aid us, especially in marking the outlines, and with a difference 
of color between background and ornament. On the exterior, forms must bé de- 
signed for being seen from a greater distance and a direct view, therefore 
having a bolder and more massive character. But in the interior, they are 


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12é ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

only viewed near at hand, chiefly obliquely from beneath; their profiling must 
therefore be more refined, details more delicate and intended to be seen 

from below. 

The kind of ceiling permits forms of rooms to be divided into two classes, 
those with horizontal ceilings, andthose with vaults. In the first are COT 
sidered various methods of covering the walls and of treating the ceiling; 
in the second, modes of subdividing rooms and the decorations suitable for 
different forms of vaults. 

a. Rooms with Horizontal Ceilings. 
1684. base and Cornice of Wall. 

Horizontal ceilings exert only vertical pressure on the walls, which then 
only require thickness sufficient for this pressure and for their own statil- 
ity. The treatment of the wall may then be uniform, or it may be replaced 
by a colonnade or arcade, or be pierced ty doors and windows, so long as 
parts above these openings are able to support their loads, Bvery treatment 
for walls must first have at bottom a base connecting them with the floor, 
and a cornice at top,: The base usually changes into the lower wall wainscot-— 
ing of hard materials, a dado or paneling, which must be durable, as the 
dower part of the wall is exposed to injury.' Stone and wood are suitable 
materials for this covering. Lining with stone slabs is especially appro- 
priate with antique wall decorations. Stone slabs of rectangular form are 
then fixed above the base mouldings and are bordered at top by a flat band 
or belt-course, wooden paneling also takes a special form at the tase, and 
requires framework and rectangular panels. 4 moulded cag at top with a 
slightly projecting rounded profile forms a transition to the middle wall 
surf ace, 

The surface of the wall reguire forms above it to both crown it and make 
a transition to the ceiling. The cornice belongs to the wall covering and 
has a frieze with ascending ornaments or figures. The cornice is the trans- 
ition to the horizontal ceiling, and to express its function as a kearing 
form, it must appear as a course structurally united with the wall and cor- 
kelled out from it. 

155,: wall Tapestries. 

In the decoration of wall surfaces, their function ia enclosing the 
room should chiefly be expresesd. Ornamental forms are therefore borrowed 
from the oldest form of enclosure, merely an inclosing by suspended tapestries, 
Since the wall is built of solid materials, a covering of tapestry formed the 
wall decoration during many periods of civilization. In the Graeco-Roman per- 
iod, these tapestries with inwrought or painted figures played the chief 
part in the decoration of walls. During the entire Renaissance period, cost- 


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| * OS OCD 
id 3 | ? ynttaies ied OBE 
abo waoitiaegs? rs zedt gaisevos gin betoegaon yidoeuth ai elisv ynbinied — 
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i bonis ter ter yliirizta ots asiitneget Lew mort beworzed giyda to awe! dap iieg 
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i ey og bas vbeadugedd rover mi goatwus od? tadd o@ ,asoloo to noksoadd 


127 . ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

ly wall tapestries were preferred for churches and palaces on festal occasiong, 
Perfected technical skill has now substituted cheaper manufacturing process~ 
es for earlier hand work, and has invented various substitutes for the coste 
ly wall tapestries, and these have been very extensively used in consequence 
of their cheapness. 

In accordance with oriental traditions, wall tapestry has a uniformly rep- 
eated ornament or morive, but according to antique and Renaissance ideas, it 
should have within a wide border representations of figures or landscapes, 
or ke designed on architectural principles. In the decoration of tapestry 
ty the first method, it is important that this should be based on an éasily 
recognizable geometrical form, like vertical stripes, Squares, polygons, etc. 
Yet these forms must not be enclosed by geometrical lines, but be represent- 
ed by ornamental shapes, which in their general effect produce the geometri- 
cal form. Such a surface pattern is appropriate when the wal] forms a Lack- 
ground for movable objects. The decoration of the wall must then te sutord- 
inate to objects before it; as a background, it must have a quiet and full 
yone and exhibit in different parts of the design no great diversity in co- 
lor, aA good effect may be obtained ty patterns, where design and ground are 
kept in the same color tone, differing only in degree of depth. Tapestries 
with ornamental figures (Fig. 207) are used for enclosed Spaces, and must 
therefore be suited for the wall surfaces to ke decorated. The corners and 
centre of each torder are emphasized by small panels with little figures, 
medallions, etc. Figures and landscapes are used in picturesyue composition. 


@ purely ornamental expression must be arranged so that clear and appropria-— 
tedivision of surfaces and masses may result, The centre is always occupied 
by a large ornament, ag by a graceful shrine with a figure, by a small sta- 
tue, etc.:, whose enclosure combines with the other decoration.’ shields, 
medallions, vases, etc., may also form centres of the ornamentation, which 
covers the surface with slender candelabra, arabesgues, and festoons. The 
border should decidedly ride from the panel surface in its color tone. In 
Italian tapestries the ornament of torder is usually dark on light ground, 
and conversely the decoration of the surface is light on dark ground; for 
French tapestries, the border is mostly dark with surface ornament on light 
ground. : : 
156. Mural Painting. 

Painting walls is directly connected with covering them by tapestries; old- 
er forms directly imitate the latter, and in its later development, the im 
portant laws of style borrowed from wall tapestries are xtrictly retained, ' 


Each representation in tapestry has acquired a conventionalized form. and com- 
bination of colors, so that the surface is never disguised, and this always 


nN } “aaaureseteon 3 aor. 
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‘428 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
appears as a covering. ' Thus conventional wall painting strives less for yeale 
istic truth to nature in figures or landscapes, than to appear as a surface 
decoration by severe outlines and simple broad coloring with a perfected ar- 
tistic effect.: Harly Grecian mural paintings in temples and public halls 
were imperfectly imitated in paintings on vases and by the latter we may 
learn the severely conventionalized and decorative character of the wall 
paintings.’ Even borders of pictures on vases are not suited to the form of 
vase, but indicate the mode of enclosing such wall paintings, and suggest 
that all mural painting then firmly retained the idea of tapestry covering. 
157,‘ M Pompeian Mural Painting. 

A peculiar form of decorative painting was developed in later antique 
art.. It is usually termed "Pompeian" as it chiefly became known in the 
cities of Campania buried by Vesusius, of which Pompeii was the most im- 
portant.: In this mode of ornamental painting there was an endeavor to suk- 
divide the wall surface and apparently enlarge it by making a slight archi- 
teotural frame-work, suspended tapestries and perspective views forming the 
enclosure of the room.: This is to te regarded as a pleasing fancy of the 
imagination, rather than as an actual deception, because not a realistic 
imitation of actually existing objects, but a sportive representation of 
light and graceful forms having a purely ideal existence. 

Such a decoration (Fig. 208). is usually composed as follows. The lowest, 
part is occupied by a dado of dark or black color, subdivided by lines and 
bands and containing in its panels, views, fishes swimming, birds, or 
plants. From this base rises a light architectural structure, enclosing 
the larger central space, by its prespective depth frequently appearing as 
a kind of shrine. This enclosure has a suspended tapestry as its motive, with 
a ric} border and a large picture with several figures. At the sides of 
the middle space are narrow views with architectural forms drawn in perspect- 
ivé. Side panels also represent suspended tapestries within light torders 
and are more simply decorated, having as ornament an ascending figure or med- 
allion on tapestry ground. The supports of the architectural frame-work 
are slender columns, candelabra, or reeds, recieving a correspondingly 
slight entablature, frequently broken and is decorated by fanciful ornaments 
and additions.’ The entire architecture appears as if designed in metal ard 
is usually of a golden color; deep red is preferred for the suspended tap- 
estry, though other colors were likewise employed. above the portion of 
the wall already desoribed is a deep frieze, usually treated as if trans- 
parent,’ Upon the cap of the base stand shrines, candelabra, and slender ker- 
mes columns, which partly continue the lower subdivision of the wall, and 
are partly the upyer termination of the wall surfaces, connected by light 


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176 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

festoons, bands and arabesques. The slight architecture of this transparent 
frieze is ornamented by dancing figures, winged genii, and fanciful beings 

of all kinds. Panels and open spaces are shown in perspective and do not at 
all harmonize, but relate to a near observer; the various parts are drawn with 
different points of sight. This wall decoration apparently enlarges small 
rooms by the gracefultess of its forms and Ly its views; Lut it requires 

the walls to be entirely unbroken, and with our custom of filling living rooms 
with furniture it is applicable in only few cases. 

The Renaissance made no extensive use of mural painting as Roman antiquity 
as tapestries were preferred in decorating the finest apartments. ‘When in 
the 15th and 16th centuries walls were ornamented by decorative painting, the 
modes of subdivision of walls and the ornamental forms of antique wall deco- 
rations were employed as far as possible. Favorite motives were the paintings 
in the Golden House of Nero teneath the Baths of Titus. Moderate use was made 
of perspective recesses in architecture, though they were correctly represent- 
ed. Ornamental treatment of tapestries was also later very influential in 
mural painting. Architecture was replaced by a free structure with ornament- 
al forms, animated by the most varied acessory figures. 

158. wooden wainscoting. 

Covering walls with wainscoting occurred in the earliest antiquity in Phoen- 
icia, bBibical narratives of the building of Solomon's Temple and Palace are 
equally applicable to Phoenician architecture. Classic antiquity seldom used 
this mode of covering walls. Remains of dwellings scarcely permit us anywhere 
to assume wooden paneling, nor do ancient writers say anything on this pcint. 
But during the Middle Ages and north of the Alps, wainscoting was extensive- 
ly used in houses, monasteries, and castles. In the 14th and 16th centuries 
joinery was separated from carpentry, and wainscoting changed from joining 
together narrow matched boards to a framework with inserted panels, In the 
Renaissance period, preference existed for wainscoting, expecially in Upper 
Italy, shown by fine examples in sacristies, choirs, and apartments of pal- 
aces. Rich and finely developed forms of paneling were transmitted to Sout h- 
ern Germany and to Frances, assuming a national character in both places, 

In constructing wainscoting, peculiarities of wood must be considered. It 
changes Slightly in length, but its width continually varies in damp or dry 
air. This requires the construction of a framework of small width with in- 
serted panels, which can move slightly within their spaces. The frame is 
frequently composed of doubled pieces, so that when wide, shrinking or 
swelling may be possible in its separate pieces. 

The wainscoting of the wall is usually divided in two parts in height, a 
base with oblong horizontal panels, and the wainscoting proper with its high 


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180 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

panels, The lower portion is of simple form, but has a separate base as a 
wide band and a cac, which projects little and hes a rounded profile. The 
upper portion may have ornamental pilasters or engaged columns Letween panels 
to support the cornice of the wall. (Fig.209), In accordance with the small- 
er scale, the forms of the columnar orders are simplified and have sharp and 
angular shapes, so as to appear sufficiently prominent in the dark color of 
the wood. Among decorated mouldings, the large egg-end-dart moulding and del- 
icate dentil tands have especially good effect; the leaf moulding is execut- 
ed with simple incisions. Besides pilasters, the panels are decorated Ly en- 
closing bands, with a leaf moulding inside. 

Inlaid work or intarsia in wood is a favorite method for decorating panels 
The use of veneers in different colors hes the test effect in flat ornament 
for the intarsia. The Italian Renaissance understood how tc fill each sur- 
face in great variety with ornaments of teautiful and pleasing form. kost 
ornament vonsists of conventionally treated plant forms, growing upwards from 


a vase or candelabrum, and extending in Leautifully curved scrolls, The cen- 
tre of the surface is marked by a plate, shield, or similar object, around 
which are grouped the principal masses of ornament, of interlaced motives, 
and small figures, in a regular way. This produces a clear composition with 
slternation of broad and delicate forms. In contrast to flat ornament of 

the panels, the framework may be decorated by told sculptured ornasents. 

Leaf mouldings or egg-and-dart mouldings enclose them, the nerrow surround- 
ing frame has an interwoven band in low relief; pilasters are fluted, or their 
surfaces are sunken within a narrow Lorder and decorated Ly carved ornament, 
The frieze of the entablature is also an appropriate place for relief orna- 
nent, 

The German Renaissance recieved from Italy only the columnar orders of the 
High Renaissance Period, It employed these in its own way, partly combining 
them with existing native forms, partly extending them in the same spirit with 
new forms in bold relief. The ornament is ruder than that of Italian and is 
frequently composed of carved and perforated cartouches and metal-work, The 
lower third of pilasters and engaged columns is usually decorated by ornament 
like metal work, but the upper part is left smooth. The pilasters took a 
new form, borrowed from furniture, being diminished downwards with bold band- 
like ornament forms telew its middle 9(Fig. 210). Such supports were also 
placed on elegant pedestals above the base of the wall. The pilaster reciev- 
es as background a wall-strip having the width of its extreme projections. 
The frieze of the entablature generaldy has consoles supporting the widely 
projecting and delicately profiled cornice. The panelling of the walls is 
treated in the most varied ways and Loldly framed. Kotives of the panels are 


iy aay ae ee . 

fens les ob. sie. 7 “i fox pointy sedobi wit eotla-aacebied % eboow 
vs A is 800 Ds 109 Tasedna tte igtilemsg edd ai siguoe exew Tolono to avastssoo blog 
"bana agin shatt tied aeneen \aboow tested to deigaco bas ved yl loner 
fel ee | iets lutitused to 

oe tus (How say to idyied evitae edt yguooo vice don awob uartleasg meboor 
a ih fir Yd boxevoo 70 antiniag yd bedasooeb ,qod ts eseitt wedowsey gee s aeveel 
9 Se ao agciinisy , {lew szisae edt etevos gnifensg edd neds  .ytteagsd yottateg 
to bastant Aoisiog weqqu ati at badtean: ylsedorg exe asvaso 70 @lenag boow 
baa geeb Tio tea of yIseseoen ai boow edt Yo yaibliy lettis4 slensq seboow 
_ ag ibaecat fedl ..dxowomazt edd ni ylieioeqae agtidatag fio to atelas tint 
Be... eea't aed. eid bas salen. eit neewled olonsq edt si wooo oa le 

7 ie ee ) yatvooental eidywsst eal 

ted asi 102 pear eee obi abseoous edele eidiem dtiw Iiaw eld ynivevod — 
to yoomted ,bemtot ton al afensg déiw Avowemest s tf neva * sosetseqgs tot 
“ghaed yd besolone ed of getroloo beitsv Jo adsia seygisl efi aexiuper atoloo 
“=v00 ifew aldd yaixkd to bodied ed? .teloo mi dash Ylieway bas enod telup te 
4G bexlt yrted edsle egw! ,eldstiva tnemepaetig aidd gene eositg at galve 
avis neensed ai bednenso gried ebasd worsa ait ,aeybe ttedd af dave equete 
ah. dee vlisuey ex ebasd to base eacitaiog Siefal Yo pedals do sastiva teved 
; - abonisd dopa vlad paedde yor. hetlatiog ed ned? yaa yedt onusced ,eas ly ease odd 


7 ‘ | bee Lise sdy fo acieivibdve swtoetitow as eoubotg of ete dotdw , belo 
Saas =yowe eved efjtaa to ebatd gaom gon . efi tog unibmogasrico 8 sveicet saad? 
a.  acpamayaagpatpit word: ods ie ot viseeecen ak #k ,tolos Yo aanod aesoid yl 
Ba sie’ (etoloo ano kev oh boner nedw ,edeid -.gritoloo aids netdgred of sroloe 


i beeing Ysa eye edd ‘dede ,wenil esidw yd efusg yateolone mort berets oee 
a i besiege ail atednen bsaudglvoe Oidism betsgotial | ato loo ont: 6 ie Te gee 
fb S aephors bab ig” ‘ems Asie. oldism wb hay at hesugone fedw ,seolrteo bas .eoent | 
erty toeTte bibne laa 
“A i basses! face ban: idbatotoves taedots. @¢i bavot(ITS .gfI) gnttooenisw oldies 
wt betetint exe eaotinxooed tous = .eboiieg aamod bas msinbxels ni -oau be 
ie “ yadbao00. : . (aeagoH sebiO ,soiliesd .retiquy to efqmat) agatiniss aeleqmod 
Wiha aeiliee adé sebau gntog dpid s of beitiu aaw. yxy f \etodive osnonl oF 
ee  mtedad ait at Ligw edt Yo freq reWwol edz to gakievoo oh? .allex gnizevoo vs 
S. - epbdresya bas astvetad0 yixeG nl sx aidd most antewer moodtos4 ods Yo +ol 
- ro) tb to aeldisa d¢iw segnen eupiice edt ak berweney stew ebdowsdo ,abotteg 
: eae baond: we fey noe iassone wort foie’, Acoinnent eva sue 


ms bostepos sot josnein soouse a ofdeveidd trae) to poltesint bebbebicd 


redhiam " otesotape ‘senitence ine esha sed todet bas onit 


(181 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

woods of handsome color, flat niches, arched panels with inlaid ornament, etc. 
Bold contrasts of color were sought in the paneling; structural portions are 
usually dark and consist of Letter woods, panels being light with a ground 

of beautiful grain. 

wooden paneling does not usually occupy the entire height of the wall, but 
leaves a deep untroken frieze at top, decorated ty painting or covered ky 
painting tapestry. when the paneling covers the entire wall, paintings on 
wood panels or canvas are properly inserted in its upper portion instead of 
wooden panels. Partial gilding of the wood is necessary to set off deep and 
full colors of oil paintings, especially in the framework. Then intarsias 
also occur in the panels between the pictures and the Lase. 

159. Marble wainscoting. 

Covering the wall with marble slabs succeeds wooden paneling for its bet- 
ter appearance,’ Even if a framework with panels is not formed, harmony of 
colors requires the larger slabs of varied coloring to be enclosed ky ktands 
of quiet tone and usually dark in color. The method of fixing this wall cov- 
ering in place makes this arrangement suitable, large slabs Leing fixed by 
cramps sunk in their edges, the narrow bands being cemented in between them. 
Outer surface of slabs, of inlaid portions and of bands, are usually set in 
the same plane, because they may then be polished together. Only such bands 
project, which are to produce an architectural subdivision of the wall, and 
these recieve a corresponding profile. Since most kinds of marble have stron - 
ly broken tones of color, it is necessary to arrange them in complementary 
colors, to heighten this coloring. Slats, when veined in varicus colors, are 
separated from enclosing parts by white lines, that the eye may distinctly 
separate the colors. Variegated marble, sculptured members, like capitals, 
bases, and cornices, when executed in white martle with some gilding produce 
splendid effect, : 

Marble wainscoting (Fig.211)found its richest development and most extend- 
ed use in Alexdrian and Roman periods. Such decorations are imitated in 
Pompeian paintings (Temple of Jupiter, basilica, Older Houses). According 
to Roman authors, luxury was carried to a high point under the earlier Caesars 
in covering walls. The covering of the lower part of the wall in the inter- 
ior of the Pantheon remains from this era. In harly Christian and Byzantine 
periods, churches were veneered in the antique manner with marbles of differ- 
ent colors, mostly taken from ancient monuments; yet the broad surfaces of 
the antique wainscoting frequently give place to mosaics. The Renaissance 
invented imitation of gen.ne marble in stucco marble, which reguired much 
time and labor, Lut which is sometimes preferred for its uniform texture to 
real marble, where some veins are usually soft. The later Renaissance employ- 


1:7: | “winataion TAA TOREION: ahh 
rhe ieee bre | estonslo thoest at vLletoogre sefeentors atdwaa ooduda aids be 
~isq ooonde elites anivney ativ teddoo? .am10? {otignst dite esosca Llew 
~tisde allied someasae adits rooeb nO} os Yiseqory bits ,Wwos beav sown 2h old 
ae | | ir ATHOBLIBYS eigca das ayaw 
ES otet alan ma i ,gatited to tmemtsext =O! 
k _ bate @lisw ets to jsdt to siebasqebad qilerenes es ent lies ed’ t6 shentsov? 
fo emiot setevib Jeon eff anoogs Jas duoteTith eft ai aelyaexs gees ods nk 
Nga yitites eff .ellew snidaeat To aebou tnerettib edd dgviw wo00 agai fiee 
ae ‘od veo df to ,yllesnemento bateets bus aldieltv noigorndanoo ode eves sadtio 
| wtwtoutie fesbt as enki ,a10t evits10deb 6 yd hetero bis beigeonoo yletitie 
Az ites edt stiolensat doidw ,gaitter tO gatavs badodetve a 20: savwemestt be 


f 


2201 bebivtbéca yligtivueed tns golisce vieer? ,fiygit Gdas 


oom 


4 .  ebaed heboos diiw gaiiied Lasudenwe Sof 
Bye: baudd beos 46 cimretina Yo esatenoo yatlies To m10% [éiusourse Jeolqats eat 
a _ yleres ei eased eaose to qniiies expizns eft ebysod to teolt 8 yd beteves 


Pitt bynttaieg teteqgaod emote osai yailied asec neboow s to aolse leas’ 6 
gtel asneme le fetusoursea tteds eved ytinotine to eyiilies ases HanGad eit gedd 
Bi. bas: ,2ene olbbia edd si Suoor gaiteveo to badten ymo wif aew elnt aldieiy 
Bye  @d3 al ledaetitteys esese 107 bebliy bas botoloo ylsoed Siow agalhihes dome 
pat ‘0 wyol wen ofg Ai beteets ylietmemsaio a6e atid? ,botteg soncaaiamed t6/ fase 
Vlei ‘cand Sa bevas(qque eow i ,ywwaneo JG! odd wort sud :elyde ent 
ree leaky Be 
chan yaides ab atelenoo (St yz) gniigeos dowa to Inemfeord eviserooed. 
_ hae oor eff Froqque amesed eft. .avisy Jootattin oft to amoliomult edv daen 
~eidw beceliedai 16 ebacd badoretva “i dbedrouwmss sia Aon twa Tawed ied d 
ie edy ts beoklg sayo A moor ods to gateolome fadneskiod edd Jaguegas ecan O86 
“nga 00? 488 @vods grilieo edt to sroqqua ons 2o loduys ¢ ef afiaw els, to god 
‘aie - gd bese xooeb dose .shasd gateolore yd elomen flee as babivibdwe et yeu sed 
i ises  .dieusnte nelimte vo ,etteeot o iste © io ayot as sokeneqeua to iodmye. 6 
aoloanes no to ,eoin10o @tegntinos & ao deer tonite ‘bup flaw odd go biel ou 
‘nedt estate aidd anode atin baal et Liew edz medw eldest ive el. saxt? ent 
A evets iors aa extl begsetd baw (flow gu IO Sieg & BS onOTe to ools Sasted 
es ho ayniinisg 70 eeitveasgas eyes vilsiopoge ,@iiaw To dneavset’ santo %@3 
7 “i909 to aledtoo neboow Si» ameed to Br eygie RE tngior tive at th (omy wedge 
ae ‘ynilieo ant yaidvoqque Banat edt seo% of amoot egiel mi aegoxg el ST 29.Loe 
 Pgsnete $e beoalg ~~~ spedd 3 {Pts ar) emeed asem to aiebiig yveen &o 
aa’ wwe gaiftes ‘etd Sas .webia tied? Bove uuoinroo abtrogqua eved eeocsdets 
" iy aiis sabasd anieolons a nel fenrs oi wade op atitees eased fisae voowded eae? 
™ gob ot you doidw gti lion io ares Eagremnnve yidgid bay besiiagib s  peoubory 
ape ese. La owners men homer: bas bernieg vd bedano 


be Ne a a a 


Peal walt a 
are o~ - 
ne Fs 


Pe," 


182 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
ed this stucco marble profusely, especially in Jesuit churches, and treated 
wall spaces with fanciful forms. Together with genuine marble, stucco mar- 
ble is much used now, and properly so for decorating entrance halls, stair- 
ways and state apartments. 

160. Treatment of Ceiling. 

Treatment of the ceiling is generally independant of that of the walls, and 
in the Lest examples in the different art epochs the most diverse forms of 
ceilings occur with the different modes of treatin; walls. The ceiling may 
either have the construction visible and treated ornamentally, or it may be 
entirely concealed and covered by a decorative form, like an ideal structur- 
al framework or a stretched awning or netting, which transforms the ceiling 
into light, freely soaring and teautifully subdivided torms. 

1é1. Structural Ceiling with wooden beams. 

The simplest structural form of ceiling consists of uniformly spaced beams 
covered by a floor of boards. The antique ceiling of stone beams is merely 
a translation of a wooden beam ceiling into stone. Pompeian paintings prove 
that the wooden beam ceilings of antiquity have their structural elements left 
visible, This was the omly method of covering rooms in the middle ages, and 
such ceilings were richly colored and gilded for state apartjents. In the 
earlier Renaissance period, this was ornamentally treated in the new form of 
the style; but from the 18th century, it was supplanted by the various forms 
of panels, 

Decorative treatment of such a ceiling (Fig.212) consists in making promi- 
nent the functions of the different parts. The beams support the roof and 
their lower surfaces are ornamented by stretched bands or interlaced work, 
to make apparent the horizontal enclosing of the room. 4 cyma placed at the 
top of ,the walls is a symbol of tne support. of the ceiling above it. The lat- 
ter may te subdivided in small vanels by enclosing bands, each decorated ty 
a symbol of suspension in form of a star, a rosette, or similar ornament. beans 
are laid on the wall and either rest on a continuous cornice, or on consoles. 
The first is suitable when the wall is lined with stone, this cornice then 
being also of stone as a part of we wall, and treated like an architrave, 

For other treatment of Walls, especially with tapesvries or paintings on its 
Upper part, it is sufficient if Suppurts of beams are wooden corbels or con- 
soles, It is proper in large rooms to rest the beaus Supporting the ceiling 
on heavy girders or main beams (h1g.c!3). If these -n~ placed at moderate 
distances, have Supporting cornices aung their sides, and the ceiling sur- 
face between small beams resting gn them are psnellea vy enclosing bands, this 
produces a dignified and highly ornanental form éi veiling, which may be dec- 
Orated by painted and sculptured ornaticus, proautdie 2 very rich effect. It 


SE Day kh te hy me ae! Bae iP ‘ ee ie 
‘ay ae ons oe Fi, pA aye | 40 Ae te a Wat aga 


movPraosmon SaAOa TION . oe | 
a am ett es neiten oid ta. noteivibdue ody seegyua: oF Yissaesen aiseqqs o76d 
edt jatdnisg tot ad \.aeloamoo yveed no amcod ales soeiq of bas Lisw og to 
Ps tates oli eelgmexe $netons taed eft ai got ties maed neboow. iswedourte 
besuvexe ells recog yited atoloo to solisatdson « ,besetial. and Lee eis boow 
| puted eleasq giteolons @bhaed edz bas @aeed odd jenoty evideroseh: Qlangrg dolby 
~ro lo ede doidw mort ,ecot dish s gnivad gnilteo edt to costae odd ,sdyel 
nen | teats gerioatob ylaselo Jaemeato bebst4. to be 
tos rei | peanut Yoon oldialV 35h. 
 weky #tal od yse toot edt to emer? edd ,amoot oytel gninisinoo ayatbliud al: 
"tava aeawurs eid to. noltouttemes edt gud .too1 bits gitifes dred gais1o2 eidl 


o a. polgasind ganorte as Sets oa ye tmgth letnencnom ‘to bas elgala yiev od mens 
L  dneiottive es exe edt oF qweuus yea yedd ,yatites benifonl eds gatinogyue 
a @8 asnemotinpet emse ef? esd (ats. gi) gtoot to apatiies exedd to nolyeioceG 


—atigil as atodics bas ansed syiei ao te9qge. ecilw? e,otlies used istaox bio 
| _ me gaisas fq yd beleasq ‘ed Yam gene abieod to yaitevoo 6 gatitoqqua aiodakd 
486 aeostwe gailieo bas edges bediieg ed blweda asweg isiwioutle eit. .abaad 
By i ab te¥ Miiup btn: otaes Lo ai aisdieo gon af atoot bemast eidtaiv to seu ei 
a - fedinddoe ee ,a4us007 dows ns io@x0 to ¢iaign fewdourte odd dilw sou saomisd 


he sone eibbia, yiaco edi ml ° enkltaod lauutoe riders vi awode oval eanelX das 
— vtiilest Ce moe aw dofdy. yaw aid? as bowvoo ylisteneg etow anoliiagd 
7 begga need aved, tdain gntlieo jatnogived bibnelqe s deft ,bedsedt 
O ‘to bas -goner0l4 is otetaii maf to eicoy. beusit ed? taco ema ond 
BG | Gis KO fsciuesio os onyeled ioc olseimok ga 
: me TROO diiw gatiied Gor 

youno viatten 10 ghibes eteupe ylasen atin boow to patifeo bevetios efT 
! emeod eoais .kalrevoo avitszoseb s us yiae jut  fawmsouste es bebisyet od 
ieee om abisod to aexod tye! , aoitoertib ano ai exetioe ssolone oF beyolque ous 
me eds dud gai flenag edt ezelqnos of auned edt soewied tei so eid al tea 
babneqaue ei bas ebisod to ‘geod ddyti to sfalanco ylieuey etetion to mevaye 
eieaoiqmi a seowbortg giinetios seY .sodieaor bia shaad yd betwemsato gnied 
pel yd badneaetges ous amsed anisooareial eff .moisouasanos feoht as 
: 209 edd doidw evods ,dsqyemett yonorde s as. ateduem gaibivib edd to asta 
‘ “meaaece seq edT (8kSy ght) seddo dose evods agesecet semds 1o ows ante 
je i ainsten gid. ,onte bedataiatb stede dtiv bas 20% tewol edt to acolfoubes 
yi _ “BNO bebsegeva @ ai 19%200 eit to wetteo ede th .beouber cele os eagathivos 
- ss heneae segtsl to% .eitenor ro towolt bestianotinevaco eyisi s to soem 
3 to bawoty est novo bseage bas astenst eit mort gaiage yen adaenento 
“16% 
ee om aoleenoo bas alttasb aodk \beseead idols saon uxseqgs tetion edt 
8% ‘ea te aanhiine- sehen 30ae7e% Le ntaniane gente tol bodusite 


182 , ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN. 
here appears necessary to suggest the subdivision of the ceiling in the frieze 
of the wall and to place main teams on heavy consoles.' As for painting the 
structural wooden beam ceiling, in the best ancient examples the colors of 
wood are seldom imitated, a combination of colors being generally executed 
with purely decorative views; the beams and the bands enclosing panels being 
light, the surface of the ceiling having a dark tone, from which the color- 
ed or gilded ornament clearly detaches itself. 

1é2. Visible Roof Trusses. 

In buildings containing large rooms, the frame of the roof may be left vis- 
ible, forming both ceiling and roof. But the construction of the trusses must 
then te very simple and of monumental dignity, so that as strong triangles 
Supporting the inclined ceiling, they may appear to the eye as sufficient. 
Decoration of these ceilings or roofs (Fig. 214) has the same requirements as 
horizontal beam ceilings. FPurlins appear as large beams and rafters as light 
timbers supporting a covering of boards, that may be paneled by planting on 
bands. The structural parts should be painted light and ceiling surfaces dark. 
The use of visible framed roofs is not certain in classic antiquity. Yet it 
harmonizes with the structural spirit of Grecian architecture, as Schinkel 


and Klenze have shown by architectural designs.’ In the early middle ages, 
basilicas were generally covered in this way, which was sometimes so richly 
treated, that a splendid horizontal ceiling might have been constructed at 
the same cost. The framed roofs of San Miniato at Florence and of Cathedral 
at Monreale near Palermo are classical examples, 
163.. Ceiling with Coffers, 

The coffered ceiling of wood with nearly square panels or coffers cannot 
be regarded as structural, but only as a decorative covering. Since beams 
are employed to enclose coffers in one direction, light boxes of boards are 
set in the other between the beams, to complete the paneling. but the entire 
system of coffers usually consists of light boxes of boards and is suspended, 
being ornamented by bands and rosettes. Yet coffering produces an impression 
of an ideal construction. The intersecting beams are represented by the sof-' 
fits of the dividing members as a strong framework, above which the coffers 
are two or three recesses above each other (Fig.215). The upper recesses are 
reductions of the lower form, and with their diminished size, the enclosing 
mouldings are also reduced, at the center of the coffer is a suspended orna- 
ment or a large conventionalized flower or rosette. For larger surfaces, scroll 
ornaments may spring from. the rosette and spread over the ground of the cof- 
fer. 

The coffer appears most richly treated, when dentils and consoles are sub— 
stituted for simple enclosing angular recesses. Coftered ceilings of the great 


Re: | ly pay” 
, hia ok tn’ oved Cilbegedt hdiaeg sobsba twned eds pric ‘potnpse neaklieed 
= -saagcet oft yateofous guaed off ai hegassotqes ewisidadas aatiltattod eft to 
or os © igailteo ed? to dibiw eis esoqmoo ylletomer sxotion meyea).o¢ eviT cae 
4 x eo a yd befoette at Liew ody ot Rokdiens1T BURP GEE 0299998 | Sedma, Ie 
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nine ts to débiw etelqaoo edT .eliineb to wor as sadhana Nivasogert af” 
| seointoo ald? ebfeed anole shaetxe aginedil.eseijge adv spewled 
- fd few eisegge Yltselo Jeon gnifies s dosy to aro}, he wigl uae j ifaiy elt 
Reet 102 ets lyqorqys 6% 6 blog bus etidx .ooerted) ayo! gae 594s mtolon wed 
| editor edt to ban netiewor ei? to bavotdoed sot bet xo onkd Atty , edt eag: gas 
ia jaom end Beouborg yn Liao aid ,allew to gnivoice tegaotée baa tegoeh adi 
bavoty edt blog mi Gt dvowemett bas fosasnao oft fis .medy,, (do9%%9, Jaeah3oa 
woled. exelit e'aad ffew ody 21 would geiod asittoa ode bas .exatioe edd Yo 
| trode ed biwode gatlieo ed? Yo anolaivil odd ,e1e ties ag iol adie bot bheote ie 
ees bebaeqaua 10 oda lobes detles ni vical. sia va bexaraneh OORT LY tekt 
Ry ene ibaa a Drigwan? 10 


orem Bitveroed aot oldhs ton ~tefmes ali te began. “ed yen pea saad s 
se ddiw (5t8 347) @osqe lexineo edt seolone eleneg rolieme yowdelo daetagg, 
Teens edt miso eit go bas pebin oid to gesinem edd fe heteosL. regeda Sete, 
ee to esiiea 4 “& Willies beretieo « doua to wiesd eds aaxot stawls elyioning. 
| Suite edd waiot bis suorde ebay Be besitevoersde ets omeed: 

| . 210 we yalterooeb aleneq es aseqqe aeos tive beaweaos doldw aeewded 
nod | eidiee inteq doa at atifeasg edt nf aacaiutionst fretg ool ...ae wight 
‘ soldtasoans ebem qleteds af moi vouttanne, oda 
| agailied bebssd . BS.19 nia " 
ts 00 ed? to eos ?iwa odd exedw ‘intlive 4o% dnezettib ete afieaertings? .. 
; 4 “aqhite gatioetorg ylsdgé le wi bebivibdva et eased to sefioes evade. 

| dagil s se siweggs tid olJouitanoo edz weongs soa aeob coinivib s- 
“(ean wal od? ylao aetiqgs notietoseb tous oP .gatlies etd seve bedotettea 
* * eteoaor & Hdlw feng wegis! s yd saeninotg eben od bivore exiueo edd Jedd 
qorqqes ai svetios qoeb diiw gatitoo 2. alin “@VEFOR ‘WGlimin to await 
“puoot Elem tot eldstive ed bivew sgnilies bebssd. amoor eytsi bas daid 40% 

bao ed? emrot ylisues nedd boow ef? To foo. tewwean edT fa gted agel: te.” 
p a , Isitrusg 6 dtiw INGmB TO, daft to ve £anoo, yen fotdw Mottetooss até le emod 
Da: AS bem1o? ai-[law edd of poltienset .boow. dt to gatblis bas gaiiaiag 
7 Iiew befoosnisy dsiw ilew as inom isi! sgoiiias dowd . .99.L0100 belitozg ylevsod 
te ° of “a st dtaw dooance bas ptt es ans of bagsxe aeng yom gal sovan ion edt 
Ov hea ee ae | ool 

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’ Pat vam + ¥ R sree tA ] sh i Sekt th alba yn ar ; + a 


134 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION.. 
basilicas erected during the Renaissance period frequently have all the details 
of the Corinthian entablature represented in the beams enclosing the recess- 
es. Five to seven coffers generally compose the width of the ceiling; a great- 
er number appears monotonous, Transition to the wall is effected Ly a corn- 
ice, usually consisting of an angle with cymas above and teneath; the angle 
is frequently replaced by a row of dentils. The complete width of the soffit 
between the coffers likewise extends along beside this cornice. 

The rich sculptured form of such a ceiling most clearly appears when but 
few colors are employed thereon, white and gold a re appropriate for enclos- 
ing parts, with blue or red for background of the rosettes and of the soffits. 
with deeper and stronger coloring of walls, the ceiling produces the most mag- 
nificent effect, when all the ornament and framework is in gold, the ground 
of the coffers and the soffits being blue. If the wall has a frieze below 
a ceiling with large coffers, the divisions of the ceiling should be short 
flat pilasters, decorated by figures in relief, candelabra, or suspended wreaths 
of fruits (Fig. 218). 

Instead of extending a uniform series of coffers over the entire ceiling, 
a larger panel may be arranged at its center, suitable for recieving an in- 
portant picture; smaller panels enclose the central space (Fig. 217) with spe- 
cial shapes located at the centres of the sides and at the angles, The same 
principle always forms the basis of such a coffered ceiling; a series of strong 
beams are characterized as under stress and forms the structural framework. 
between which recessed surfaces appear as panels decorating by ornaments or 
figures. Too great fancifulness in the paneling is not permissible, because 
the construction is thereby made impossible. 
164. Banded Ceilings. 

Requirements are different for ceilings, where the surface of the covering 
above a series of beams is subdivided by slightly projecting strips. Such 
a division does not concern the construction, but appears as a light network 
stretched over the ceiling. To such decoration applies only the law (Fig. 218) 
that the centre should be made prominent by a larger panel with a roseste, 
‘figure or similar motive. tihile a ceiling with deep coffers is appropriate 
for high and large rooms, banded ceilings would be suitable for small rooms 
of less height, The natural colr of the wood then usually forms the ground 
tone of the decoration, which may consist of flat ornament with a partial 
painting and gilding of the wood. Transition to the wall is formed by a del- 
icately profiled cornice, Such ceilings harmonize well with wainscoted walls. 
The wainscoting may then extend to the ceiling and connect with it by the corn- 
ice, ? 

165. Painted Ceilings. 


aw i aa pew od) ame , hap he aR a RA ON eS 
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185 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 

Forms of ceilings previously treated contrast with those consisting of dec 
orations of stucco-work. The painting of the ceiling should cause the upper 
surface of the room to appear like a stretched canvass. Therefore this sur- 
face recieves a broad bordering band and an ornamental center, which repre- 
sents free suspension and approximates to the ornamental forms of textile art. 
bands that divide and enclose the surface may Le painted as flat ornaments, 
or be raised in low relief. Painted ornament in the spaces may itselt Le 
Slightly shaded, but must have cast shadows on the surfaces. Only separate- 
ly enclosed pictures may Le treated with picturesque freedom, since these re- 
present on the principal parts of the surface special decorations (Fig. 21¢). 

such ceiling decorations are usually executed on a plastering of lime or 
plaster of Paris. It is easy to combine painting with low relief; the bord- 
ering forms of the dividing bands may have sharply raised forms, like cymas 
and beaded astragals, and be distinctly raised from the background ky color- 
ed bands adjacent to it. The delicate gray shading produced on such relief 
mouldings by side lights makes a pleasing contrast to the full colors of the 
bands of ornament. 

As for division of the surfacesof such ceilings, the center is always made 
prominent Ly a larger panel, surrounded by smaller panels at its sides aneé 
angles. between them connecting bands of ornament sutdivide the surfaces so 
far as necessary. The form of surface of ceiling naturally determines arrange- 
ment and shape of the panels, and a generally applicable rule can scarcely be 
given. The easiest arrangement is always the square (Fig.220). Ornaments 
in intermediate spaces may be plant forms, candelabra, small figures, garlands, 
etc., and should always extend from the outer torder inward, as if the ceil- 
ing rises at the center and the ornaments grow upwards; this arrangement is 
also conveniently viewed from below. Transition to the wall may be by a del- 
icately profiled cornice; yet a larger cavetto is appropriate, since this forn 
corresponds to the lightness of the stretched canvass and apparently exclud- 
es li loading. Beneath such a form of ceiling, the wall frieze is most read- 
ily decorated by arabesques and by inserting large paintings in the architect- 
ural order beneath them. The Italian Renaissance treated such a frieze dec- 
oration richly and elegantly, for the free upper wall surface is the most vis- 
ible place for pleasing representations of figures and for decorations. 

16é, architraves of Doors, 

architraves of doors within the building should be lighter and of more el- 
egant form, than those on its exterior, The pediment caps have smaller di- 
mensions, since they are chiefly viewed obliquely from below. The Renais- 
sance almost always constructed the door jambs and soffits of stone, and in 
the earlier period gave to them a wide decorated band (Doorways in Palace of 


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13é ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, : 
_Urbino).. Large doorways are finished with pilasters or columns supporting 
an entatlature. aA free decorative treatment of supporting forms is suitable 
here. Pilasters may change into hermes figures and columns may be decorate 
ed by rings, rows of leaves, or incisions, in the most varied ways. 4 crowle 
ing ornament is also placed as a decoration over the pediment cap, an angu- 
lar or curved pediment may either be broken at the center to recieve a bust 
or vase, or atove the horizontal cornice of the cap may be placed special 
ornaments at ends and centre, connected by ornamented volutes or scrolls. 
Doors are usually of wood, only teing of bronze in rare state doorways, and 
they are composed of framework and panels. The paneling depends upon the 
style and character of the adjacent architecture. Uniform square panels with 
rosettes on the panels and with disks or knobs on intersections of frame are 
appropriate for monumental doors; division into small and large panels of 
different forms decorated by ornaments or figures produces an elegant impres- 
sion, and harmonizes with varied ornamentation of the room. 

167. Large Rooms. 

Large rooms require 2 clearly arranged architecture, which divides the 
wall and appears as a structural framework for its decorative covering. 

This purpose is most simply fulfilled by a series of pilasters forming twe 
orders, if the room extends through two stories. The upper order is kept 
low and no frieze is assigned to its entablature. The arrangement of the 
pilasters produces a rythmical division of the intervals, adapted to any j ar- 
ticular form of the apartment. Effective contrast in decoration of the inter- 
vals are obtained by covering the lower ones by ornamental forms or tapestries, 
the upper ones having figures. The ceiling must in its division accord with 
the arrangement of the pilasters; supporting beams must correspond to the ser~ 
arate supports, 

168. bBasilican Designs. 

The special purpose and especially the necessary width may require the roox 
to take the form of a Lasilica. This essentially consists of a high central 
space or aisle with colonnades or arcades along each side opening into lower 
rooms or side aisles, and lightea by windows in its sides above these. side 
aisles may recieve light from the middle aisle, or external windows may Le 
in the side walls. ‘The light falls in the middle aisle from above and is 
very satisfactory for the general effect and for the decorations. Divis- 
ion into longitudinal aisles makes possible a great width with proportional- 
ly small spans to be covered, and with its varied heights and the arran,ement 
of its columns, it produces a rich prespective effect. In decorating the 
interior, it is necessary to make the upper portion of the center aisle as 
light as possible, so as to not produce a heavy effect above the rows cf 


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137 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
columns, The adjacent roofs of side aisles require a rather high wall above 
the spandrels of the arches, and this may te decorated inside ky a deep sculp- 
tured frieze. The upper walls above this have light pilasters, supporting 
the high suspended ceiling with coffers; windows in the intervals have grace- 
ful architraves, surfaces are decorated by tapestry patterns. In contrast 
to this light decoration of the upper portion, the side aisles may be veneer- 
ed with marble or stucco, so that the lower story appears as if entirely ex- 
ecuted in stone. Ceilings of side aisles may have a massive Character with 
large beems, serving to tie the walls together. 
169.° Rooms with Galleries. | 
These (Fig.221) usually have two colonnades or arcades above each other, 
Ratio of height of lower to upper odrer is then taken 2 $ 2or4: 8) GeP pees 
' tical uses of such an apartment usually require wide spacing of the columns. 
The straight entablature is to be madeas if constructed of wood. Cap blocks 
with consoles at each. side may be set over the Capitals and produce a good 
effect, materially reducing free Span of the architrave beam. Rooms with 
galleries may also have a basilican plan, if a third story with pilasters be 
provided; yet this produces a rather weak support for the upper walls. The 
following arrangement has a monumental effect: colossal columns directly 
Support the walls of the clear story, its windows being placed between low 
pilasters and are wider than high: tehind the columns and at less than two- 
thirds their height, galleries are Supported by inserted pilasters or cor- 
bels. This combination of the gallery with colossal columns wid not have 
a perfectly satisfactory effect, and the gallery will take the character of 
a wooden enclosure; yet this arrangement produces a dignified general effect 
in the room, and is stron construction. | . 
170. Halls of Semicircular Plan. 
with rooms having galleries belong semicircular assembly halls, which con- 
tain above a closed corridor a gallery open to the interior through colonn- 
ades or arcades. A large recess or niche is usually arranged in the straight 
wall for the tribune or platform. Such roons afford surfaces very appro- 
priate for beautiful decorative treatment. Above concentric rows of seats, 
a frieze with figures may be arranged on the continaous wall. The semicir-— 
cular arch of the niche is suitable for a larger figure of especial import- 
ance. beside the niche are surfaces for varied decoration and sculptured orn- 
ment. The ceiling may be painted to represent a stretched and richly orna- 
mented canvass. 
kt. Rooms with Vaulted Ceilings. 
171.: General, 
For the construction of plane ceilings and for covering them, the most 


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138 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. | 

varied materials are used and require corresponding variety in decorative treat- 
ment. But in vaulted rooms, all surfaces of the ceiling are constructed of 

the same building materials. The ornamental treatment may then show a cer- 

. tain harmony in the conventional forms of the different parts. Tapestry cov- 
erings, wooden wainscoting, etc., always appear as extraneous additions in 
vaulted rooms; the proper structural and decorative material is stone and sim- 
ilar materials. But since these materials are treated in varied forms, are 
painted, or may be used as veneering, this varied treatment of similar mater- 
ials produces an abundance of ornamental forms. 

The general arrangement of the decoration is first fixed Ly the form of 
vault and by the construction of the wall. Vaults do not act merely as ver- 
tical loads, but are covering forms with thrusts, reguiring atutments or butt- 
resses. But the dntigque and the Renaissance never left this construction ex- 
ternally exposed, tut always connected it with the treatment of the room. This 
appears necessary and it makes the solution of the statical protlem visible 
in the subdivision of the sses. The architectural and ornamental treatment 
then undertakes to clothe,an ideal construction the supporting masses and those 
covering the room, with which is always combined in monumental architecture 
the expression of great weight, this ideal construction indicating only con- 
trast between support and load, and by its grace and lightness of forms caus— 
ing the weizht concealed behind it to be forgotten. 

Vaults are decoratively considered as homogeneous stiff shells. Their dec- 
oration is then to be uniform, like that of a ceiling curved in different 
forms. Like the plane ceiling, it is composed of stiff arches or ribs, form- 
ing a structural framework, with spaces or panels lying tetween them, which 
may be considered as openings. The enclosing wall consists of supp,rting pliers 
and of screen walls set between them, expressing aspiration and support, and 
the enclosure of space. 

178, Tunnel Vaults. 

The tunnel vault lays its load and its thrust on the side walls, while the 
end walls merely enclose the room The side walls require for the thrust a 
a much greater thickness, than woulu we necessary to support the thrust alone. 
They fulfil their purpose just as weil if divided into isolated deep piers, 
which below the springing lines ‘are again connected by arches. Spaces between 
the piers form extensions of the princiral room like niches or chapels. The 
walls at the ends may te freely divided into piers or colonnades, or te fill- 
ed with large doorways and ‘windows. Tunnel vaults are either built of uniform 
thickness, és in brickworx, or composed o1 separate supporting transverse arch- 
es of cut stone with slabs or 1ight masonry placed tetween them. In the first, 
side walls may be divided into picis and niches at pleasure, but in the last, 


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we etitae ett wyo soitexcosh wrotion s and tluey, Jeet, 73g jitey to.9e 
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od mk bagot or atlusv bedaing Josyo 210% too, gant. $25 ADEE Ge Cel popinge 
taete thio to alensq eeolone ebsad pavonno at x the daaapes tlpaged dg, aged 
tin boaidago yliswan) admos femon at (aes Fh hams 3998 Seite, arg tacee 
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a yas , a: rq eal stuseddedae ne tdsaiiod co cine! ead Io eRgdt pont, hay feeb 
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Aight 


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= etluay. 4 e ete 
4g _daagolovsi antnaaeeh bas, Lemmsourte 6 sididn sewtourse ouphtne serene} BAC. 

oy. eolgaed to egnilion msod anode, alisoe: dadd ,eagta. duo ab J lvev lenny g§ 430. 
_mimea s ognt éned ansed exit anoijoes evad geodon oayevanstt gnitrogaua . OLS 
i a & dows ale Le enote beb Loon agit ylewolo dog em eaodt oo iors 
eid toy .Inixetem od dtiw somebicocs ni solsearqui letaaaucon s' geovborg Wet 
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139 ; ARCHITBOTURaL COMPOSITION. . 
Supporting piers must be set under the arches of the vault (Fig. 222). 

The forms of construction described suggest the mode of decorating surfac~ 
es of vaults. The tunnel vault has a uniform decoration over its entire sur- 
face, appearing in many variations, from painted network or foliage-like dec- 
oration to a series of deep coffers. Blegant painted vaults are found in the 
baths at Pompeii (repeatedly interwoven bands enclose panels of different di- 
mensions, in which soar small fires), in Roman tomts (usually combined with 
fine stucco work), and Renaissz::ce villas (Villa of Pope Julius, arched cor- 
ridor with delicate lattices and scrolls of foliage). Coffers (Fig.228) are 
treated on the same primary prinoiple as plane ceilings, and may have Square 
or polygonal coffers alternating with small square ones. In Roman architect- 
ure, only arches and horizontal beams were of brickwork, wooden forms being 
set on the centering to form the coffers, this portion of the vault being of 
concrete.’ (Temple of Venus and Roma; Basilica of Constantine; Rome). A row 
of coffers is always found at the crown of the vault, usually with a larger 
panel at the center (The ornamental arrangement of such panels in vaults of 
triumphal arches permits the assumption of ceiling lights in vaults of temples), 
The number of coffers in the width is 7 to 15, according to dimensions of the 
vault. 

é strongly projecting cornice separates the wall and vault.: Its forms are 
derived from those of the Ionic or Corinthian entablature. Its projection 
conceals from below a large part of the surface above it. This indicates that 
decoration of the vault must commence above a plain Land of the same depth 
as the cornice, and that the vault should be stilted accordingly. subdivis-— 
ion of walls below the springing may be according to different systems:—- 12, 
In solid walls, separate niches may be arranged with pediments and columns, 

a continuous frieze extending above them. 2 If the wall be interrupted by 
large niches covered by tunnel vaults or halfi domes, free columns may be set 
before the piers, their entablature at the same time forming the cornice for 
the vaults over the niches. Above the columns are suitatle places for sta- 
tues. Lighting is best effected ty large semicircular windows in walls at 
ends of vaults. . 

Different antique structures exhibit a structural and decorative development 
of tunnel vault in cut stone, that recalls stone beam ceilings of temples. 
stron supporting ttansverse arches have sections like beams bent into a semi- 
circle; on these are set closely large moulded stone slaks.: Such a construct- 
ion produces a monumental impression in accordance with the material, yet the 
arches project strongly, and when viewed obliquely, conceal a large part of 
‘the slabs and appéar monotonous by reptition. The Renaissance treated tunnel 
vaults generally in aero-Aance with these principles, but proceeded in a 


Be sé ow P chat ow ahdow ahead A883 B83 eye) ‘yaw oviterioned | 
Wivreal qaebla whet no esmyo Ui ons coeds towel sieae 9 Abasd yd beset 
*~ efensg brs dAvonemext Yo teienoo baa .aynthivoa wo afensy ogre f evad bdske 
 aanaaoger noitetneuants otisas edT el. iotitqg lawtowie ong ov pr ibsoog.. 
a, ) id to noise coe’ enno1s 6 aqedtsy to (gntites galt bevwo ted Pr yilesbs . 


ake eiwy eth jes osat hebivibina eliaw faatbusigaat edt to ety. 

“stots belensq ebiw e togqte of ,axisg af neve ors bis sototg et ‘wehaw fa, 
j Fa sav gnitooatosai asouborint yatilvey esatbemistai sdf to re sSa7edo fdgil oA. 
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baw aoheer’ seg aeouboty baw @uoox edd tot gitifdatt boo, abuot'is ei iooth:, 


- ppeting getowdo sonseeienef béetivay oyiel .scomesord ev Hstooeh- ns ye Paay., : 


ey et, “nortizoauco navrearDigss. re OO 


se oft dtiv bétoennoo yledewitnr at ative to aotteroosh. ati? jiyey | . 


LO ssid simteg efiuay leanud to zegasittud guowla sdT .2ola exe ine tioese ; 


Ses (teal ts ativey loans yd besevoo aleye i8 fegedo TO amor ab te to noise 
Greeks: . .etlyev bentowgalew yt to cbeatoty ys .eno faq tonitg ae ot ael 
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bie and, ‘to gntiies edt dguowly bess tedasss guied Jauzly ed seebgox 10. ae 
mye add to méiterooeh {yteos 14 bas: Sdy ts agin ifaw Tedvo od? of gsnagg 
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| Inoatsen! ‘islygetsi odd ,yawrisia edt to dthiw finma odd ot dénmel to olives 
ad basi add eweiv eno enemnerfh ‘goatee, vitese, ot at @abetive [law edd 3. 
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140 ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION. . 

Surely decorative way (Figs. 224, 225). Transverse arches are flat, are dec- 
orated by bands on their lower surfaces and by cymas on their sides; the 
slabs have large panels low mouldings, and consist of framework and panels 
according to the structural princi.le. The entire ornamentation represents 
ideally a light curved flat ceiling, or perhaps a tronze decoration of the 
vault. This decoration of vaults is intimately connected with the architect- 
ure of the longitudinal walls, subdivided into separate parts. Pilasters alc 
set under ‘he arches and are even in pairs, to support a wide paneled arch. 
The light characver of the intermediate vaulting introduces intersecting vailts 
with windows over the arched openings or chapels along the sides. ‘Such arct- 
itecture affords good lighting for the rooms and produces great freedom and 
variety in decorative treatment. Large vaulted Renaissance churches afford 
exeellent examples. The strong buttresses of tunnel vaults permit the form- 
ation of side rooms or chapels, again covered by tunnel vaults at right ang- 
les to the principal one, Ly groined, or by welsh-groined vaults. 

In small rooms lighted at their ends, tunnel vaults may te set on colonnad- 
es or arcades, the thrust being transmitted through the ceiling of the side 
passage to the outer wall. With light and graceful decoration of the vaults, 
such rooms produce a rich and elegant impression (Fig. 228). tie might give 
to tunnel vaults over large flat rooms a flat elliptical form. « varied panel- 
ling with flat enclosing borders should © be most suitalle as decoration, 
to produce an impression of great lightness in ornamental treatment, like the 
construction. Such an example is supplied in the magnificent ceiling of the 
Library of St. Mark in Venice, Fig.227, decorated Ly paintings Ly Paul Veron- 
ese. : 

The inclined tunnel vauit is used over stairways. Decorative transverse 
arches are not placed at right angles to the axis, but must always be set 
vertically. Since oblique intersections with longitudinal bands result, scrolls 
of leaves and fruits are most appropriate for ornamenting the entire visible 
framework, giving the vault a very light effect, making imperfections in suk- 
division not prominent. aA magnificent example is found in the Scala d'oro 
in the Doge's Palace at Venice (Figs. 228,229). The festoons are white on 
_ gold groundand the enclosing cymas, etc., are partly white with gold framework. 
Large spaces on each side contain colored figures, those in the middle have 
white reliefs on gold ground; long bands have colored ornaments on light ground, 
and small squares arr filled with reliefs on gold ground. On account of the 
ratio of length to the small width of the stairway, the irregular treatment 
of the wall surfaces is not easily perceived, since one views the whole as 
foreshortened. 

178. Groin Vaults. 


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«seein ingele eds pent weds expis wuntaliedie ne diinw ananlen be 
ko pele Ret? & hevetoet hee sbebivebdas Bow 


140 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
while the entire length of the tunnel vault rests on abutments, the groined 
vault is the intersection of two tunnel vaults, only resting at four points 
on supporting piers. [ts pressure first loads the four zroins or ribs extende 
ing diagonally between the abutments, and it is transmitted by these groin 
arches to the piers. The decoration is closely connected with these f groins, 
which are considered as principal lines; the vaulted compartments are regard- 
ed as uniform surfaces Letween the groins, The groins or ribs are first orn- 
amented by foliage scrolls or similar forms in relief, along their sides ex- 
tending cymas or beaded astragals as a transition to the surfaces of the vault. 
In the middle of the vault may be placed a rosette (Fig. 230), or a figure in 
a circular or polygonal frame. Decoration of intermediate surfaces produces 
Simple forms, if at the centre of each triangle be placed a circular or pent- 
agonal panel containing a figure. The direction of the object is from the out- 
side towards the center; the angles are filled ty ornament extending from the 
springings. In contrast to the decoration of the arches, the entire ornament- 
ation of these surfaces may be either by painting or be in lw reliet, appear- 
ing as light tapestries or ornamental network stretched Letween foliage scrolls, 

In a series of groin vaults the bays are usually separated by flat panel~ 
led transverse arches. Yet the compartments of the vault may te joined and 
decorated together. Large square panels may then te surrounded ty smaller 
polygons and produce a gotd effect, for they appear in continuous straight 
lines as viewed lengthwise the vault. 

abutments must be massive peers, capable of resisting toth vertical press- 
ure and the thrust. Inside them, projecting pilasters with entatlatures re- 
cieve transverse arches and rits of the vault, permitting the observer to 
forget the thrust that acts sidewise. [If free columns with an entablature 
are set beneath the springing of the vault and before the pilasters, merely 
appearing to supp,@t the vault, then according to the light s decoration of 
the vault, the supporting forms will have a character of light aspiration and 
Support, the vault with its graveful forms appearing to lightly rest on the 
columns. This treatment was especially peculiar to large antique columns with 
groined vaults (Fig.221). Spaces between the piers are joined to the prin- 
cipal room and large semicircular windows may te placed in the wall above 
them and beneath the arch, through which room is lighted in the most satisfact- 
ory way. These spaces are frequently separated from the central room by small 
colonnades, : 

The groin vault is especially suitable for arcadrs open along one side, In 
Roman Renaissance architecture, piers recieved on their external sides engag- 
ed columns with an entablature above them. Thus the heavy form of the pier 
was subdivided, and recieved a character of asciration and support; the engag- 


es i ee “MOTTIZOMNOD JaUToRMHON ar 
a exiuper pits ods ‘aa Atacateds edd nad dgneite of ¢ygen of tedgaut ponaibed be’ 
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ae sebor ayes yd mene ed saum honk au Sie awiq: to. beetand. adavido so seems 
5 1. sthtiuaY evadaghaet i. BST 9 ante 
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| ~ Ok to tluey atera edd to esord ets mead Ohs aaeN, to moteye exotion om. ot. 
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| veld sidue evens te fk yrev ak doinw .slosy beniory edt aed? awous ge digaenie 
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142 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

ed columns further to serve to strengthen the abutments, for the piers reguire 

considerable depth to resist the thrust, with but moderate width. The ereat- 

est lightness of construction results, if in vaulted porticoes groined vaults 

rest on columns instead of piers; yet the imposts must be tied by iron rods, 
174. Pendentive Vaults. 

Pendentive vaults are closely allied to groin vaults by their uses, and con- 
sist of a spherical surface described with half diagonal of Square to be vault- 
ed as radius. Semicircles on the four sides limit the surface of the vault; 

a horizontal circle at the crowns of these arches divides it into a central 
plain calotte and four pendentives. These surfaces are much better suited 

to a uniform system of decoration, than are those of the groin vault of four 
compartments, and the former is therefore preferred to the latter in modern 
architecture, In statical condition, the pendentive vault is similar to the 
groin vault, but the side arches recieve part of the thrust, and should there- 
fore not be too narrow in open vaulted porticoes. These arches have plain 
panels in their soffits, and their slightly projecting sides are bordered ky 
cymas. The calotte is only separated from the pendentives (Fig. 222) by a 
belt of slight projection, since at this band the surface of the vault is in- 
clined at 45 degrees. Suitable modes of decorating the calotte by coffers, 
ty division into four large panels with figures, between them be- 
ing narrow bands with a decorated circular space at the crown (Fig. 223), or 
by representing a tent roof with its decorations. Pendentives contain soar- 
ing figures, garlands, medallions, or onnaments rising from the imposts. all 
telts and enclosures are light in their general tone, decorative panels Leing 
colored. 

If the Romans preferred the groin vault for covering large rooms, it may te 
Lecause it was Letter adopted to construction in concrete with separate cross 
arches, than would te a vault with spherical surfaces. For vaults entirely 
of brickwork, the pendentive vault presents less difficulty and has greater 
strength at crown than the groined vault:, which is very flat there. Subdivis- 
ion of rectangular rooms into separate Squares and covering these Ly penden- 
tive vaults produces a plan of room similar to that of Roman halls with groin 
vaults (Figs. 234, 234a,234t) Vaults may likewise be apparently supported by 
columns set before the piers, whose entablature forms the plier cap, Lighting 
may be either by large windows at sides and in walls beneath the arches, or 
by skylights in vaults.. Spaces or chapels between the piers are covered by 
tunnel vaults, and are suited to recieve galleries above small colonnades, 
which materially heighten the effect of the colossal columns Supporting the 
vawlts and of their massive entablature. This produces great variety and ef- 

fective gradation of architectural forns and of enclosing surfaces, very ap- 


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142 | | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
propriate for decorative treatment, Yet with all its richness, a clear arch- 
structural subdivision predominates, and this mode of treating an interior 
produces an imposing and rich, and harmonious impression. 

175, Domes. 

The perimeter of the dome rests on a vertical cylindrical wall, exerting 
on this a unfform pressure and thrust; this cylindrical wall requires a treat- 
ment like that of walls supporting a tunnel vault. The wall may be penetrat- 
ed by openings, or it may be concentrated in supporting piers connected ky 
arches below the springing. The deep niches or chapels of the Pantheon in 
Rome (Fig.235), apparently divide the wall into eight great piers, which ex- 
ternally contain hollow semicircular spaces. The vertical eylindrical wall 
is separated from the dome by a bold entabklature, which should nearly corre- 
spond to that of a colonnade of equal height. 4s decorations for the dome, 
coffers of approximately square shape are appropriate, since the vertical 
and horizontal ribs clearly emphasize the form of the hemisphere. In the 
best examples, the number of coffers in one row is é4 to 26, with © or € in 
height. Above the coffers, a deep ring surrounds the sky-light, tordered ty 
a delicate moulding next the latter. The opening for light has a delicate 
cornice at top, and its vertical surface is treated as a frieze-like band. 
Its lower edge may have a round moulding ornamented by leaves. 

The division into coffers is independent of subdivision of wall Leneath. 
But the vault may instead be decorated by large panels altermating with 
narrowbands or small coffers. Eight broad spaces ape usual ly separated Ly 
intervening narrow panels or bands, being enclosed Ey,above and below, and 
small square coffers are then placed at the angles. As in the treatment of 
the tunnel vault, the relief is kept low and the bands or ribs project only 
so far that cymas may be formed beside them. The large panels may then be 
enclosed by delicate mouldings, receiving figures in low relief or paintings. 
This treatment appears especially appropriate, when the dome covers a ply- 
gon and not a circle. Such antigue interiors show effective treatment of 
the wall; a gallery is arranged in the wall above the great lower niches and 
opens into the room by an arch above each niche, supported Ly small col- 
imns. The circular closed form of wall, the vaulting recalling the sky, the 
light from above, illuminating all objects in an unusual and very effective 
manner, all impart to a domed interior a solemn and earnest effect, making 
it especially suited for sculptures in relief. 

178. Groin Vaults enclosing Panels. 

All forms of vaults heretofore considered are based on the semicircle. but 
in residences and palaces, heights of larger apartments are seldom sufficient 
to be covered by previous forms of vaults. These are rather used on a large 


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144 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, | 

scale in monumental public buildings, churches, museums, litraries, etc. Where 
used in residences, this is on a small scale in vestibules, loggias, corri- 
dors, ete. But to give ceilings in palaces a monumental decoration and make 
them suitable to recieve costly ornamentation. and paintings, the Renaissance 
invented vaults, which required less rise for large spaces, thereby approxi- 
mating to plane ceilings. These consist of various forms of groin or coved 
vault with horizontal central panel (Figs. 23@,227). This form of vault rises 
steeply from the wal] and towards the centre passes into a larger slightly 
curved or plane surface. such vaults are seldom built with reference to the 
forces acting in them and their durability chiefly depends on good mortar. 

4&4 true vault of this kind over a rectangular ro,@ has the central surface sup- 
ported by half tunnel vaults (cove ceiling, Fig.2388). Reducing the central 
surface, this form passes into the cloister vault. The best proportions for 
decorative treatment result, when the central Space with its enclosing corn- 
ices has atout half the dimensions of the rectangle enclosed by springing 
lines. The half tunnel vault is then suitable to recieve large pictures, ex- 
tending from lower to upper border, conveniently placed for the eye. These 
painted surfaces may be limited at angles by extending the bands enclosing 

the central space.: These triangles may be filled with arakesques, perhaps 
with a middle panel. The central space is enclosed ky a delicate cornice of 
slight projection with a broad band. To not require masses of stucco-work, 
the section of this band should be kept close to surface of the vault. The 
subject of this central panel should contrast with the lower figures, and be 
decorative in its nature, consisting of rosettes, aratesyues, garlands, shields 
of arms, etc. Beautiful examples of such Renaissance decorations are found 

in the middle loggia corridor in the Vatican containing Raphael's Biblical 
pictures, (where this vault is used above semicircular arches to cover the 
separate Lays of a long corridor), as well as in the salons in Massimi Pal- 
ace and in Villa Lanti at Rome. 

The most extended use during the Renaissance was made of that form of this 
vault with the cove intersected Ly a series of compartments, thus forming a 
half groined vault (Figs.239, 240). The middle surface consists of panels 
of two kinds, alternating in shape and location and very suitable for decora— 
tion; windows extend to crowns of side compartments and thus com pletely light 
the room. Instead of a complete vault, the central space is frequently enclos- 
ed by a wooden frame, against which t abut the marginal vaults, and it is ther 
treated as a coffered ceiling or is filled ty a large picture, composed to 
suit its location. On the edgss of the outer com jartments and on the ribs 
of the groined vaults are leaf mouldings or rounds, carried horizontally a 
round the border of the middle apace. within this is an enclosing member, 


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146 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
which projects little in a complete vault, tut with inserted frame and rais- 
ed panel may have the complete profile of an entatlature. In the decoration, 
the different surfaces have a varied treatment in color and ornament. If encs 
of side compartments are closed, these surfaces and the central space are suit- 
able for picturesque compositions. In contrast with these, the compertments 
and the triangfles or pendentives receive a predominating ornamental deco- 
ration with ground tones of dafferent colors. kany Renasssance decorations 
have in the pendentives shrines with figures, supported and accompanied by 
ornamental forms (Fig.241). These surfaces may also te divided into a hex- 
agon and three small triangles, the first being appropriate to recieve a fig- 
ure. Such a decoration was employed in the portico of Villa Farnesina in Rene 
by Raphael. Painted garlands of leaves and flowers cover angles of the com- 
partments and enclose the central surface. Panels have tlue grounds and are 
treated like the sky, on them being represented the story of Psyche with fi.- 
ures soaring as if resting on clouds. The whole exhitits Raphael's sense ot 
beauty and produces an enchanting effect, which could only be produced in sin— 
ilar decorations ty a master with genius. 
e. Connection of Apartments. 

177, Rooms arranged in Suites. | 
Simple forms of rooms may in many ways ke combined to form suites of apart- 
nents. They may be either directly joined, appearing as portions of an a- 
partment, or be merely arranged in a series along main axes and connected ly 
doorways, forming the separate divisions of a bui,ding. Thorough treatment 
of connection of rooms is not intended, but it will be briefly illustrated 
by some examples. The arrangement of rooms as first mentioned first appear- 
ed in many Renaissance basilicas, where with horizontal ceiling of central 
aisle, side aisles were covered by groined vaults or pendentive domes. 
The heavy loading of arcades ty clearstory walls so nearly neutralizes the 
thrusts of the vaults, that their resultant is Lut slightly inclined. The 
necessary buttresses are included witnin the Luilding to form recesses fo: 
chapels. The side aisles thereby has a rich and architecturally Leautiful 
treatment, with an effective contrast to the spacious middle aisle. as in 
Barly Christian models, the choir usually ends in semicircular form and is 
cqwered by a half dome. Beautiful examples are found in basilicas Ly brur- 
elleschi in Florence (with rectangular apse) and San Bartolomeo in Eologna 
(with ceiling lights in pendentive domes of side aisles). 

It was most common to combine various forms of vaults in subdivided plens 
of rooms, using horizontal ceilings and vaults over different parts. A con- 
bination of groin and tunnel vau’ts was mentioned in the description of kanun 
halls. Pendentive or depressea domes form harmonious combinations with all 


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a: ais Fo. ‘eleoe edd bas tfuev: to 10% ent dtod dated avs ebirig & sod oved blvoie 
4 fe “" Lleae nf ylewoes bedvoexe od yam aoitoursence tot ,eviaioeh eis «oktuosue 
. ‘< att dtiw casera Jon aeob aletiednn elf to eoantaiser adt sud ANoLeremso 
fee i Hdiw eeeoient jon sech elsineise edt Yo eonsdaties ad¢ tud .anoienemad 
grab dt vedgid edd Jens ale% 8 a6 noted od ¢ilerensy, yew 2] anoteaemt> 
Vigas ‘bivoda govijnebneg ed¢ to. nal 4 ed} ylesolo atom eit .oham ots ooh bine 
| eeowborg eit .(baS 4%) selinis ew adigiod esi aed patos as od oteutx 
ve phat Date eds of grtanela bos nollowtiencs edt vey wiiginow rad: BNOLICOYOTg 
ede “O8 ‘gnteselg, bis notsoutsenes. ead, aitiw gttainogiss enoitsogorg 
a e708 ¢ enoved aynines0 beioqs ote sowol oft to sebte siom odd gatdad 


tol aid at iene a opt 3 “made wie ener s dats 


pets 


e 


14¢ ARCHITECTURAL CONPCSITI?N. 
semicircular type of vaults. with a skylight and covering the central part 
of the room, supported Ly four strong piers, they produce with adjacent vaults 
a strongly united form of room. Thus the bracchio Nuoyo of Vatican museum 
with two tunnel vaults and halt dome, the whole Leing lighted Ly skylights, 
In vestibule of Villa Wadama, Figs. 242, 242, the central pendentive dome is 
flanked by two groin vaults and extended in depth by a tunnel vault; each room 
with groin vault is extended on two sides by larze niches. 

178. Connection of Room with Central Building. 

If the central space be increased in height ty placing a dome over it, and 
if on four gides lower tunnel vaults or half domes adjoin it, this produces 
the grand and beautiful combination especially developed in Renaissance enurch- 
es and known as a centralized building. The central space consists of two 
forms placed one aLove the other; the lower part is square, with four pliers 
connected by semicircular angles arches and supporting pendentives, which form 
at top a horizontal circle and are crowned ty a bold terminal cornice. Sur- ~ 
faces of these vaults are portions of a spherical surface, when piersstand 
at angles of a square. but if the piers are partially moved into the square 
and its angles are cut off by straight lines, the gendentive vaults form pe- 
culiarly curved surfaces, which horizontally gradually pass from right lines 
into a circle. These surfaces overhang the less, the more nearly the plan 
of the room approximates an octagon.’ This is much Letter suited to support 
- a heavy and large superstructure, than are-regular pendentives over 4 square..— 
Above the circular cornice of the pendentives rises a vertical drum and a 
dome resting on it. The drum must recieve the thrust of the dome and there- 
fore usually has projections on its exterior to make the interior of the 
dome appear light, and to admit light freely. If the pendentives are placed 
over a sguare, this dome cannot exert a great vertical pressure on them, and 
should have but a moderate height. both the form of vault and the scale of 
execution are decisive, for construction may be executed securely in small 
dimensions, but the resistance of the materials does not increase with its 
dimensions, but the resistance of the materials does not increase with its 
dimensions. It may generally be taken as a rule, that the higher the drim 
and dome are made, the more closely the flan of the pendentives should appro- 
ximate to an octagon, when its heights are similar (Fig.244). This produces 
proportions harmonizing with the construction and pleasing to the eye; dimin- 
proportions harmonizing with the construction and pleasing to the eye: dimin- 
ishing the main sides of the lower part, arched openings become more slender 
and a corresponding form then results structurally in the superstructtre. but 
‘with the square, ‘arched openings are usually wide and require structurally — 
and esthetically only a slight increase in height of the dome. 

The following principles are applicable to architectural forms of the pred- 


“oInteoguco s:aytoaenion: | ay ae 
‘ered sine sot ¢f2 to sao7t at Joo o9e enauloo 10 eretes lid ‘.cosga lego’ 
meued Bid? eons piasi sot avoimied geogpt edd emict ewdéslisine siedJ baa * : 
¥ pes at bes sasieviaese yveed to noseagn gal, edt evol of aoftouiseaoo add ae 
ee geen teiq Hove to eostwe adt Jreqque bas nokiaxiqee to noon teil ) astiny 
a ‘at etd evode teller 10 deldet ddiw eafioin s evad blyode 20898 fertueo erty 
bhod & vi beeolons ef bluoda eosye Isivoito eyiel s oos tive avitnebsey Mose 
on fesaemenio eveitoet solgae Aninisset ed? ,otwylt s ¥d paspar i parawes 
a. ‘exods ,bavor-tled biod s eat tiusy eidt Yo egbe gaitiei! teqqu edt  .aolva7 
ylgnoita ‘A. ditw bne neds sevidaebneg eft bas ,exeitt iscivbe ae af doinw 
feoidrev eiT Leotatoo teoqmi edt aedt enolanemib tey16! 49 eointes yniseet 
ald. to power yd teds op. ,avode gaosime Leoitzey edt 10% eetsgety onelt} 
“IGqqs e186 anolemenib adi .sttoh edt to an93 bentte1 edd Atiw eotntoo nots 
veel netic: eséo4 ot0% elamia esodw ,muxb edd to aasd eit bas (beasoions \yiing 
Peat easd sielq efi evods woled me i fd dis ai sovisnebieg edv noyu ylt 
oF aid tisd~stie os absidd-ows at tdated eeodw miejesliq to aeitee 6 esd my 
-aiw aisdaoo jacks weno! add mo begnsiie ots algyviedni ait .sebto sewol To 
Fbropos ,redaut ak aeetxin od ddyte. port eva bas .eevetsidow elqmia dtiw awob 
 bbbivibdue eyewls af emob edt yntibiied to esia bas"emob to ¢dated o¢ gms 
“aby evods @18 BgOKGa egies dete oe ,eteteclig ed? to dastexnait of) Jiva o2 
| Bved 4 Iworde ewob bas suxb odd .emtdedidow s9wol edt of sgasaimoo ol °.ewoh. 
ve pas obtsroseb botoloo vd bedeiass paondagel, seeniuteosty to tetos%edo 6 
hey ee neste webfod ati jive od taomento telex guivad disq tol 
i | wh | gnitiaisg ad bets toaeb cL Lowen ets gevitaebneg 
ae ti 6 e20q0d bas ‘etiuew Lemavd. vad 205%. Inadaso add. niintethe amoon 
“sty be toanaeo ee08 ye bomab jalisae beorlg yileves ‘em eelgns saodw ai e107 
ams agdleew bivow enegqe ‘ietiaeo.dtiw notvosanod astorw eyisl yd amcor ebfa ety 
_ateeta evi .coed = .(sa070 16 amts sRO7108 gedow to ftbiw steaigib 10 eekg 
“ateteeliq to sebto ed? .eosqa Ieténeo to feds awollot aeoto to eos fo sae 
Bd yveed bas etevee edt piettoo eved ativuavy fanaud edt bre modo ai abe tee 
“han seldyil wseqas amob to moiisiopeb ed¢ 2exsm dastinoo yd atetios to Joe? 
ord 1sinaitoinea as wey fesaut diiw emis e#aot, fo bsedunt Jjnsgels enon. 
4896 on ge {sitaeo ont akoibs Ysa sogsaesq vielisy Aviw bos gemod tisd yd hétevao 
| ont au Jaume yods 10 batiteo ed teva songe Laqaeo edd ar etedaeliy isetg fT 
he | 2 t0 ouusoedidors %6 coijoeunco todd _ fetnemgai0 ‘yletq bane tebagie os 
La Sop haa ai geaob ‘$le taposibs 2 Jad¢ Adil -oosqe 
| a eeu {eos siteslooe te yotvail dgdotd . gas 
soasbig998 ar bedsext a swiSetiders 
-giodw edt” * atime zyotg bt 
2 dons | ait 10f moliexiqas of 
3g Asebt autho yreve fiat 


147 ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION. , 

cipal space.’ Pilasters or columns are set in front of the four main piers 
and their entatlature forms the impost cormices for main arches. This caus- 
es the construction to lose the impression of heavy massiveness, and it aec- 
quires a character of aspiration and Support. The surface of each pier next 
the central space should have a niches with tablet or relief above it. In 
each pendentive surface a large circular space should te enclosed ty a told 
moulding, filled ty a figure, the remaining angles recieve ornamental deco- 
ration. The upper limiting edge of this vault has a bold half round, above 
which is a vertical frieze, and the pendentives then end with a strongly pro- 
jecting cornice of larger dimensions than the impost cornice. The vertical 
frieze prepares for the vertical surfaces above, so that by contrast of the 
strong cornice with the refined forms of the dome, its dimensions are appar- 
ently increased, and the base of the drum, whose Simple form rests rather heev- 
ily upon the pendentives, is concealed from below. Above the plain base the 
drum has a series of pilasters whose height is two-thirds to one-half that 
of lower order.: The intervals are arranged on the lower axes, contain win- 
dows with simple architraves, and are from eight to sixteen in number, accord-_ 
ing to height of dome and size of building. The dome is always subdivided 

to suit the arrangement of the pilasters, so that large spaces are above win- 
dows.’ In contrast to the lower architecture, the drum and dome should have 
a character of gracefulness lightness, assisted by colored decoration, the 
lower part having relief ornament to suit its bolder architecture, but 
pendentives are usually decorated by painting. 

Rooms adjoining the central space have tunnel vaults and compose a cross 
form, in whose angles are usually placed smaller domed spaces connected with 
the side rooms by large arches(Connection with central space would weaken the 
pliers or diminsih width of arches across arms of cross). Deco; ive treat- 
ment of arms of cross follows that of central Space. The order of pilasters 
extends in them and the tunnel vaults have coffers. The severe and heavy ef- 
fect of coffers by contrast makes the decoration of dome appear lighter and 
more elegant. Instead off cross arms with tunnel vaults, semicircular arpses 
covered by half domes and with gallery passages may adjoin the central Space, 
The great pilasters in the central Space must be omitted, or they must be made 
so slender and purely ornamental, that connection of architecture of central 
Space with that of adjacent half domes is made possible. The centralized build- 
ing, though having an ecclestiastical origin, is frequently used in seeular 
architecture, if treated in accordance with a noble and ideal solution of 
the programme. "The whole should be essentially a tuilding of purely esthet- 
ic aspiration for the architectural forms in themselves, just as well suited 
for every other ideal purpose as for divine service", | 


me 


phate hie trae eS “Mar TEa0so0 Ji SU TOR TEHOR PS a as 
ee | Gos ttd ed? guinesdgies Lent nae 
, “anos ivi at betste ae you dgieel (etutoetidors ws ai emcor tnoxettih efT 
o. | <gn Qe faqlotkiq bis .ecotteoiavance ae luditaey oint babivin ed ,@ bast 
a anos eds to eonetxogat add of yaibiocoos eaoT tg skedt of notbroocs .ataea 
4 i sebi0 afd at doi de roae® tied? mi he qs biveda notvsbeng eldadiue 4 
—@ ed bluoda e4edd ,doemdasge teqtontts ods. ot geds dgvonts paey ow doldw 
at berloo taegele of tolbreixe edd to ou dood tdors aneves mort Holt tennad 
Psoalide edt mister List enastiae ond bas Sfuditeov edt eroteredT olistnens 
os ,onedt antot evise1ooeb eB igonoce ew bas, Swtoed {iors lontetxe add to te 
ce peludijasY  .aeendoit “notes yd amoot _gntbeeooua oe #69 Tis edt notdgied 
“comin 8 eouborg of thesis qs lisqtoaiag ede neds boddpt qignorte aael ed 
* mot? wagel vd beddgil yimrotiau amhout to Lootie edt “pated get ak easstond 
ustudtiaev yotwuab s dguouls rotate ou th beeseiont xiietteten ef evods dgtd 
“~ahipet ai gatsigit avioknomss ran ent bas hoi ts 4ooeh ae ‘foe! i@ teengid edT 
ay _ SuTOa at eae ign biota eaedt “gattbicted ‘edd Yo adneots gs “eido oit at be 
; ato? add etedn sposbliud ede to, poneol tingie Ingoe Llednt atid ang iaeb, iasaem 
a oft -wnonied c) ag ‘tddouos dion etait bas ewiqinos nots tosh acl MOO ‘le 


.P. 

A. 
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NCS. + : eae pine hy “wotervid. 
ROS as ae - addad ia gitivod’’,atamnthre ead uartaav 
paerr, ‘wil ae fish t aongen dotictel soeeetoty ya 
‘ Sore Negi 3 -[stene®  .08t 


| > esd. et aes bins Sanita az sath ftud 8 6 paingieeb isteney od? eosnte 
oc connate ‘thin gee? sao to nofeivid das t aids ,moteivid. tant edt at verébis 
| bo ak eraeY 03, tediwt gath lind odd ‘YopHnemepne 77s eft pa twe ib nets wa 
er gieve viwwon af beqolevel, gael io @19m ,sav MommOD dol axoor antes 
; ee ioe yfacmrics ow. alisd, sot angtao’ 8 YWOO, bas eyswatede ‘\aeluditaey as dove 
Be As Neale Ind pagatb sive ‘sei to ‘anol s%oq #8 10 tmebreqebat yleriine an “hyo 
@ ae PE 7 | bose. iateney, of hatoei, diva axed , ous 
‘4 bas obieool spend bas. adwoo bas “eb fudt iaev abiswgiede to eons drogme ode 
| Swioes tiers niedd (St UME .e¢sa) © solakvid at hesagoeth ovew taeas gas 1Te 
wort en motatvid Yeol ‘edt at bedsext esw aiisi to tadt dein , dnoutsots Is 
on ‘ag tedso lose oF os anolislpy, steds ,(evemeg of ene hy, iieds edeultedvat ot evad 
ee : fo noitales eteuisat aiy sovt .gatblivd edd to atu [agtoat tq eds of bas 
| in bee ayeniisse ,oludkiaey edt to ylinkowgae ,gniblind edz to anotdiog esedy 
 etedu « es berebsamoo od ad veildex ois fod ,bedeiqsa ed sonnso yeds (asiwoo 
) etobiv0d bas alia eoastyai ster tet bas eeluditeeY .f sotgsid 
fel at ytiavevid 16 
Pe “weoqua omyitg 20 ot dug x03 evites od at gaibliod a weitedy of gaibtoood 
7 ——s |  woamend ee meee ahi ,euo0s @fas Hs! 2p asta odd 30. 


aa ea 


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148 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 
179,' Heightening the Effect. 

The different rooms in an architectural design may, as stated in Divisions 
1 and 3, be divided into vestibules, communications, and principal apart- 
ments, according to their purposes. According to the importance of the rooms, 
a suitable gradation should ap jear in their decoration. In the order in 
which we pass through them to the principal apartment, there should te a 
transition from severe architecture of the exterior to elegant colored orn- 
amentation. Therefore the vestibule and the entrance hall retain the charact- 
er of the external architecture, and we economise decorative forms there, to 
heighten the effect in succeeding rooms by greater richness. Vestibules should 
be less strongly lighted than the principal apartment, to produce a gradual 
increase in lighting. The effect of rooms uniformly lighted by light from 
high above is materially increased if we enter through a darker vestibule. 
The highest effect in decoration and the most harmonious lighting is requir- 
ed in the chief apartments of the building. These should express in monu—— 
mental designs the intellectual significance of the building, where the form 
of room, its decoration sculpture, and painting work together in a harmon- 
lous way. 

DIVISION V.: 
VESTIBULES? STAIRWAYS, COURTS, AND HALLS. 
by Professor Heinrich wagner. 
180. General. - 7 

Since the general designing of a building in plan, and section has been con- 
sidered in the last Division, this last Division of architectural Composition 
may then dismiss the arrangement of the building further, so far ‘as it con- 
cerns rooms for common use, more or less developed in nearly every building, 
such as vestibules, stairways and courts. Designs for halls so commnly oc- 
cur as entirely independent, or as portions of other buildings, that tney 
are here subjected to general study. 

The importance of stairways, vestibules, and courts, and their location and 
arrangement were discussed in Division 3 (arts.114, 126); their architectur- 
al treatment, with that of halls, was treated in the last Division. | ne now 
have to investigate their plans in general, their relations to each other, 
and to the principal parts of the building. From the intimate relation of 
these portions of the building, especially of the vestitules, stairways and 
courts, they cannot be separated, but are rather to be considered as a whole. 

Chapter 1. Vestibules and Doorways, intrance Halls and Corridors, 
181. Diversity in Plan. 

According to whether a building is to serve for public or private purpos- 

es, the plan of its ante rooms, vestibules, entrances, doorways, entrance 


L be ee i} 


soil rene ia “aquego M00 “agimaryyon | 
; os aed “atau 1 $apigerttb al bedpett od of ove Liiv ,atobiziep bas pilsd 
a enio ot ei holtons’? thes bis gotblind oid ‘st anon yg Ltpenaes ‘edt 
ieque 1s dgod to ovis 3f ald? -soiretnt ati ov robeine “ei nott ages 
tt porate biveda yea “eggaanq ‘Ye game faswyoo bre (ath wah) inomisond 
Pick aut, aeonen Liat ignsetas bae | {satedxe "“d peaves qrot ab agpieye toh e¢ia 
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aael Sud yoda dose of aeludizeey edt e168 doidy \aTobs7709 ‘end at \lieloeg 
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oat edd id iw foitoennos gi betebiadoo ed of 1% ate tg arent garth Ls iad ony 30 
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faery | alist fo age ls A 


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s@ iste gto fewiquide edt mort tool otg dotdw .eeltmesd saetonde to eeoolltoy evil | 
i al. vangeeeb Ytose ano to afebou eidu’ bas eiqmie déod ots one  tipads 
gtieo sigmas ed? d¢iw toot omsa ‘eat sebnu - ang rad at dokitog eds Ay ov GBS 
“oie ebaesxe ylénenper? oa Ls. pied 28 evasdemoe ine eo YiaG Ta nonitomoe 
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7 yotrog Lis. to ewsoosidorp odd ak aenritie9 of bemylaas esw doce tuoqgal ead 
ii "oe el qodT ..gadinew yeds row .yvhupiiae af gatbitud olidug s (leomes as 
ve ) steer vedio e708 agatage) atinat (2 wO milion petoans ocd s yd hewevoo 


149 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, . 

halls, and corridors, will have to be treated in different ways. These are 
the connecting rooms in the building, and their function is to facilitate pas- 
sage from its exterior to its interior. This is true of both architectural 
treatment (Art.179) and convenience of passage. They should harmoniously u- 
nite differences in form caused by external and internal influences, just as 
they lead from.the hurry of the exterior to the life of the interior. This 
assumes that entrance rooms of a private house should be much smaller than 
those of a public building, whose interior is always intended for the use of 
the external world.- And since every prominent peculiarity should be reflect- 
ed in the architecture, this would assume a more purely inte. iu; enaracter 

in entrance rooms of a private house, than in those of a Plot ak) pas Od ee ee 
pecially in the corridors, which are the vestibules to each story, but less 

s0 in vestibule and entrance hall to the interior of the building; least of 
all in buildings for large halls, the corridors partly forming an extension 

of the building outward, partly a passage or corridor around it, 

In such designs climate plays an important part, and the treatment must be 
arranged to suit it. Entrance ro,ms in northern countries must afford pro- 
tection from rain, snow, and cold, and they must also be partially warmed, 
while in the warm countries free access of air and protection from scorching 
Sun are required.’ Halls and vestibules may be treated with more beautiful 
and dignified effect, whose climate is mild and pleasant. Entrance rooms may 
then be more freely open, appearing better and more Clearly on the exterior 
of the building. Their plans are to be considered in connection with the lo- 
cation of the entrance, on which the arrangement of all entrance rooms depends. 

a. Plans of Halls. 
182. Porticoes, Arcades, Colonnades, ete. 

Entrances to buildings freauently form imposing rooms opening externally, 
like porticoes of ancient temples, which project from the structural organisn 
itself, and are both Simple and -vble models of one Story designs. In Figs. 
£45 to 247, the portico is brougia. under the same roof with the temple cell, 
sometimes at only one end, sometiwes at both, also frequently extends along 
the sides. In Fig. 245 it has the character of an énclosure, but in Figs. 24é 
and 247 it is an open portico. i..is an esthetic requirement that such por- 
ticoes should not be set directly on the earth, but should be raised and com- 
mence on a substructure; they would otherwise have the effect of growing out 
of the ground and would not appear like free artistic creations; their gener- 
al design would lose much in independent effect. 

Due importance was assigned to portienes in the architecture of all periods; 
in scarcely a public building in antiquity, were they wanting. They were eith- 
er covered by a horizontal ceiling or by vaults. Openings were either rect- 


3 iin ial tH ely: ‘ed bablvtbdim yo 40 4S rays 
nk ceils ted «tote elanie » 4s yore tom oxs (aehsou 10 sebsndeiee 
. TT) ede. yaeigaet agtoeti! egw! ai as jvedeodw of gatbrosss ,2oltora Cotéesa 
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omg bee es: eae -eohieixe be od bhaedxe 
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_ mbgn0 a‘segmes {BAS .4i%) Ao basil th. fansovayld atesdeth {Abs Og it) met 
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ye ai bas : gar ev te GL Lege. giles slog yd lind gen teuot edt af Dat. g ep 
sided ae tbha aeonhdtog biel Patrore- “ows net tees tal ead “eeoottibs. vs Oi Eis 
ada edt “#ob Liggd" & 83 eaoiga wLigh ovesiaT blo eAd veevibennads “hh 
, - Todzeize edt. ledial ent ak YO. eit seditde fear? eds -: aga rane ele: 
| dypotis yooisueg silt. to teddetedeeninnsy ofd ead sud DOGO to adaker 
“ponbm evivosite deom of? ai geri limi-ads to aveloud teaei- odd yd beseninoh 
 mdnoupes?- Xe. bea: BeOS TI10g To angbtos (org oe ieeags eshanioloa +0 gobeO Dh 
ertea. geonisieg: edt aeeeo iia ml .abad: besolc itgw seshbocar bat ostguol a yi 
)tewol edd ai gedidemoe ,ebaost odd to allew oad ULisnielxe aoyo yleert od 
ty aes ope at ms ccni sities at) ¢ aro. weaar sad mk wan tewen {Ser ak 
f 


wey 


De itt ts tie ek i ks SA My hse 6 | BOS TOIE 

es cay iy wane sev bas aeooii1el deette. Aa 
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-songae iscoi Kanes edt af wmoso:yidmeupeit coals yet” .so8t. aiedsaon of “teeb 
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“ Anwaae {ga bas uveed ‘oe aoubory ylleteney .ccbasiey 10 eendéti0g eed aditote 
S 89001 F104 yiletoedes bald yxeve Yo eaulopide galtoelods wel tevomy 
x) 40 ,ajeente edt ai Snget ot Lelioqmoo aeuiteror gregmriwreg, ov ‘air erat dee, 
| *mommod need avai taum eowdsoutta dove dyuodzis sedt dgwoidy eww thidé- “dem 
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a a et . ae ‘ L ph” Si 8 Gina Rds “Se, 


~ 450 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

angular or arched, subdivided by piers or columns.' These open porticoes ( 
colonnades or: arcades) are not merely in a single story, but also occur in 
several stories, according to whether, as in large iErecian temples, the ex- 
ternal order occupies the entire height of the structure, only in the inter~ 
ior being two orders above each other, or whether the subdivision into stori¢s 
extends to the exterior. 

Excellent examples of the former are portico of Schinkel's Museum in Ber- 
lin (Figs.91, 249), Klenze's Glyptothek in Munich (Fig. 248), Semper's Capi- 
tol in Winterthur (Fig.20@), and Hansen's Academy of Sciences in Athens (Fig. 
252). Typical buildings of the latter kind, among other elegant creations 
of the Renaissance are Belvedere at Prague (Fig.250) and Basilica at Vicenza 
(Fig.261). The former was built by Paola della Stella after 152¢ and is sur- 
rounded by porticoes;* the latter has two stories of porticoes, andrea Pabla- 
dio having rebuilt the old Palazzo della Ragione as a "basilica". The sim- 
ple grandeur of the first strikes the eye; in the latter, the exterior 
consists of arcades, but has the genuine character of the portico, although 
dominated by the inner nucleus of the building in the most effective manner. 
Arcades or colonnades appear as projections or porticoes, and very frequent- 
ly as loggias and recesses with closed ends. In all cases the porticoes serve 
to freely open externally the walls of the facade, sometimes in the lower stcry 
(Fig. 198), sometimes in the upper one (Fig. 206), also occasionally in sever- 
al stories. 

188.. Street Porticoes and Verandas. 

we find on many buildings, especially in southern countries, external por- 
ticos extending along the lower story, covered and forming open passages 
protected from sunshine, and syited for work and life in the open air, so 
dear to southern races. They also frequently occur in the German Renaissance. 
Streets occupied on both sides by high buildings, especially whose lower 
stories have porticoes or verandas, generally produce a heavy and unpleasant 
impression. Projecting structures of every kind, especially porticoes, are 
obnoxious to governments sometimes compelled to fight in the streets, or to 
march soldiers through them although such structures must have been common 
in many cities, where no longer found. For political reasons Rome and Nap- 
les have no street porticoes. 

with these useful and often very picturesque designs, the principal entrance 
to the building is with difficulty recognized; the portico no longer in- 
vites entrance into the building; it even partially obstructs light to the 
rooms behind it. jt is therefore customary to make them as light as possible, 
when such proticoes are built, (as for example at hotel "Frankfurter Hof" at 
Franxfort-A-M.', Fig.252, and the new arcades adjoining the City Hall at Vien- 


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151 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION... | 

na, Figs. 254, 255).- From the faults mentioned, such porticos have fallen in- 
to disuse in northern Burope. At the beginning of this century and even a 
few centuries since, they were frequently employed, as in Rue de Rivoli and 
other streets in Paris (Fig.254), likewise in Carlsruhe, etc. nith few ex- 
ceptions (as the examples in Figs. 252, 254), they have been almost entirely 
replaced by modern street porticos and shops with large ‘show windows. 

184. Connecting Porticos and Promenades. mre 

If porticos are only intended to form covered promenades and resting plac- 
es without enclosed rooms beside or above them, these creations belong to a 
class claiming especial importance. They usually also serve as an elegant 
and architecturally effective connection between several buildings or parts 
of buildings (Figs. 253, 257), or to extend them externally. The courts of 
Egyptian temples were thus surrounded by porticos, as well as most public 
squares of the ancient Greeks and Romans, these being connected with public 
buildings as well as with private houses. The porticos of Pompey and Octa- 
via in Rome were favorite promenades of wealthy youths. Those of the Forums, 
Baths, Gymnasiums, etc., likewise played a great part in daily life. 

An example in the Italian High Renaissance is the noble portico by Berni- 
ni (Fig. 256), which encloses the Place before St. Peter's Church in Rome. 
The front portion is an elliptical enclosure with four rows of columns about 
an uncovered area, at its centre being the obelisk with fountains at each side. 
The rear portion is enclosed by simple straight porticos diverging towards 
the church to make the smaller place appear larger and deeper. A similar de- 
sign, consisting of porticos of quadrant plan, was erected before Kazan Cath- 
edral in St. Petersburgh, and Alexander I had it built by Varonikin in men 
ory of the victories of 1812-15. 

The same motive forms the basis of several examples produced in recent 
years, such as the porticos of the magnificent Palace of Longchamp near Kar- 
seilles (by Esperandieu, 1862-70), and those of the Palace of Trocadero in 
Paris (by Davioud and Bourdais, 1878). The colonnades of the former (Fig. 
257) merely serve as promenades connecting the angle ice aierate with the 


1 building, while those of Trocad 
central building, while those of Trocadero Palace are also Se aad for exhi- 


bitions, and are enclosed at the rear by a wall. 
185. State Porticos and Loggias. 

To these architectural designs are to be added state porticos, which do not 
serve as fgromenades, but are chiefly devoted to public uses.: Here belong de- 
tached open loggias which especially occur in Italy, and which are to be con- 
sidered as independent buildings. One of the finest examples of this kind 
is Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence (by Orcagna, 1375). The three great arches 
with an arch at each side, in the facade of the loggia are of imposing dimen- 


>. 


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152 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, . 
sions (Table, art.400), but are so elegantly treated and so intimately con- 
nected with the cornice, that the building is unsurpassed in this respect... 
Other porticos enclose tombs and courts of monumental cemeteries, also clois— 
ter courts, etc. Further discussion will be left to Chapter 2 (Plans of Courts) 
and pater volumes. : 

186. Treatment of Porticos. 

In the treatment of porticos, especially of vaulted arcades, it is essen- 
tial to devote the necessary attention to the endings at their angles, and 
it is usually advisable for structural and esthetic reasons to strengthen the 
supports there. This is generally done by placing columns, pilasters, or 
piers before the members supporting the arches. If porticos are arranged in 
several stories, care is usually taken to treat the lower story in forms sug- 
gesting greater strength, passing upwards into lighter forms. tie may begin 
with the Doric or Tuscan Order; the Ionic will follow, then the Corinthian, 
perhaps caryatids or Hermes-like piers. The latter will have a good effect 
only when at a moderate height, for when higher from the ground, their detail 
forms will not be visible, and the artistic value of the figures will not have 
its full effect. For formal treatment of porticos, we refer to Part IT, Vol. 

3 of this Handbuch. 
| 187. Galleries, Corridors, etc. 

The use of externally open porticos and loggias is naturally limited in our 
Climate (Germany). They are so much exposed to wind and weather, that when 
intended for connecting apartments, they do not accord with our views and cus- 
toms.- Yet the portico is such an effective element of architectural compos- 
ition, that it must be regarded as indispensable. A Simple means of employ- 
ing them without these injurious effects, consists in treating the openings 
as windows and glazing then, otherwise retaining construction and treatment 
of the portico in all essential parts. This is now common, especially in new 
buildings. Even the famous Loggias of Raphael in the Vatican in Rome were 
enclosed, and their imitations, the loggias of the Old Pinacothek in Munich. 
These cannot produce the strong effect of shadow found in the Open portioos. 
Their place was taken by glazed galleries and corridors, which otherwise ex-— 
hibit the same monumental character. This is illustrated by Fig.258, from 
Palace of Justice in Paris ( by Duc and daumet). 

b.: Entrances and Doorways. 
188. The Entrance.: 

The entrances are parts interposed between exterior and interior of the bvild— 
ing. Entrances to buildings have been artistically treated from ancient tinz- 
es) The more conspicuously the mass of the building is treated, which sepa - 
rates the public square or street from the interior of the building, the great- 


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153 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 

er is the nea? of emphasizing the connecting entrance, ]|t should always be 

so treated that access through it to the entire interior of the building is 

evident, and one is not required to seek another entrance. Independent gate~ 

ways are detacned from the building or loosely connected with it, usually when 

the structure stands in the middle of grounds, or is built back from the street 

or road then requiring an enclosure, entered through the gateway. (Pig. 259). 
189.' Location. : 

The location of the entrance is of very particular importance; this was men- 
tioned in Division III (art.128) as one of the chief points in arranging the 
System of passages in the building. 4s for the appearance of the building 
the portal usually is an artistic accenting of the principal axis of the 
structure. The entrance to the building should be recognizable at the first 
glance, and the axes of the principle facade, or those of the different pron- 
inent masses of the structure, are the places where they are sought and should 
be found. - 

it is not always possible to place the entrance at the centte of the facade. 
This occurs when all rooms in the front of the building must form a connect- 
ed series, or when the length of the front is so small that a division in two 
halves would be unsuitable for rooms to be arranged at each side. The entrance 
is then placed left or right of the centre, frequently at one end of the fac- 
ade, or often being even in‘one side of the building. The latter is permis- 
sible in short facades, especially in freely grouped structures, if the door- 
way is readily seen from the front. But the rear of the building is never 
suitable for the main entrance, only for entrance for purveyors, servants and 
private persons. In buildings at the corner of the street, it is usually best 
to arrange the entrance at the corner, especially when much used. (Art. 212: 
Pig. 806). If the structure surrounds a court, it is advisable to so arrange 
the entrance that one may directly pass from it into the court. This entrance 
will then be like a pertico and is usually intended to be a carriage entrance. 

19C. Separate Entrances: 

A single doorway is seldom sufficient for large buildings; several entranc- 
es are frequently necessary.to lead to different parts of the structure, since 
they serve for varied purposes. With sufficient length of facade, they may 
then be symmetrically arranged on one facade, so far as they have nearly e- 
qual dignity. But it is frequently hard to adopt the latter arrangement to 
the requirement of recognition of the main portal, and with due regard to in- 
ternal subdivision of the building. then several entrances are necessary, 

. they are usually placed in different sides, if these are accessible. 
vistribution of doorways to the principal and side facades, or the greatest 
possible division and wy tyne of the berered entrances is indispensable, 


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ee: fois bas eveioaisis fe sh bam eonsitne ed? sodetugaiiecs is seaq “ed” 
| eat  pribiind edf te Sieg Hide Lory ses wmeqgs Sivods qewidoh oft” to ‘ew 
ees dgiw bedsex? deed évad isatoq ets to aolistoseh bas aiot ‘[stétidg 
{| tedgo on si eboiteq (emtostidea tae¢ add [le wt sfoost: fous’ “ piluts 
jeeir vasgele ézom sii to gonsktlids doa basot ed Ysa aaiblivd eit to foid 
an iw KO edt ai wlebon ast idaquoa aed boieg mrsbas aig to Siwioestdets ed] 
ws —- enon 1d ibs04 estisadicael to eat da aspen bas biz? 
1a :. 3 . BOs (£08 (SOS ber agit ME 
tle ail se | Hedin ano Se 
gis os <eb40 at ,2yerroob eons tiie to etitct bas ‘paotaineeth of btsge7 aT’ 
F she amenitiorg ud dicd \bedatapnizets ed Saux yer . sides tmysest ‘¢ Likes ned? 
‘a gwd noe tstneaes10 yetois yd baa gab ilps ett %6 bfmsg weddo oF noid 1oqerg at 
_—-=deoanes cledeaisat baa gatblivd ettine edd of gai_ioled es 8905 cats face 
. ‘ss 13¢ qu Ulisirmy you yewroob edt to suomiaeis fewésetidow: ed tf atiw be 
i ‘aad 34 wot See vebiv .yrsed af eoseiine as ti 4 .ewitetie off to seoqpwd ons 
ie a8 enoateq to dblod to vast qeed o# Oebasint af. gaibitod eit ti aa doelte eng 
" adgtt ‘ed eoustéae ed? Yi fod .ofe .alsaents anoaing &iil ayant to en ilew 
oa aS mada tw bedcogre eo “ ouegnre dette iGiw est of nok traqorg ai ¥ttol bas 
a me tgmeangetite Ista? bas @oneoltingse 
_ meamos at 9 bee Sx ott bysnos yainege eott 8 azo? oisabudios sito = é 


Ride aaifee: 
ir 


Soe es 


as  isope bas citairotce-wdo aeel ol py han sieses bogs ine paisego edt to saan 
oe ylisven ef oslq eaods .yewetsg segue as to gasueyastos ads ef gti¢ivel yl 
Bae 8s efuditeey edif-edota to bnid 5 eedsu dotdw bac ,levo x0 eaqille tied 
— Bweds as ayertoob yas io aeeneoor bas aroduen beievico Usioute “fett0q 
adsoue Laarstvennates hes iah bad apetiant Siteddve onsa od? aort Jluaex 


7 ee te 


154 ARCHITSCTURAL COMPOSITION, . 

if separation of persons entering the building is for good reasons advisatle 
or necessary.: This is the case with all designs, where great numbers of per- 
sons are to be admitted in brief time to the interior, or are to find exit 
therefron. 

First is a separation of entrances for carriages from those for persons on 
foot, which is possible in various ways, especially by arranging the portal 
on the main axis for persons, placing the carriage entrance at one Side, or 
the converse. Instructive examples are shown by plans of theatres, halls, 
concert halls, etc.- (Figs.178, 275, 312). This separation is more difficult 
on a single facade, if other buildings closely adjoin both sides. Yet the 
entrance for persons may be placed beside the carriage entrance and combined 
with that into a single entrance portico (Figs. 261, 254): in simple buildings, 
a single doorway is usually provided for both purpoges. - 

191. . The Portal. 

The pootal distinguishes the entrance and as an attractive and rich enclos- 
ure of the doorway should appear as a prominent part of the building. The 
general form and decoration of the portal have been treated with especial 
liking by architects in all the best architectural periods. In no other por- 
tion of the building may be found such abindance of the most elegany creations. 
The architecture of the modern period has sought its models in the exvremely 
varied and peculiar forms of Renaissance portals. Some examples are shown 
in Figs.. 194, 202, 208, 204. 

192. Forms. - 

In regard to dimensions and forms of entrance doorways, in order to make 
them easily recognizable, they must be distinguished, both by prominent size 
in proportion to other parts of the building and by richer ornamentation, but 
must also appear as belonging to the entire building and intimately connect- 
ed with it. The architectural treatment of the doorway may partially express 
the purpose of the structure. [If an entrance is heavy, wide, and low, it has 
the effect as if the building is intended to keep fast of hold of persons as 
well as of things, like prisons, arsenals, etc. But if the entrance be light 
and lofty in proportion to its width, apartments may be expected within for 
magnificence and festal enjoyment. 

A very characteristic form of free opening toward the exterior is common 
in portals of mediaeval churches and cathedrals, consisting in an arched treat- 
ment of the opening enlarged externally. No less characteristic and equal- 
ly inviting is the arrangement of an outer gateway, whose plan is usually a 
half ellipse or oval, and which makes a kind of niche-like vestibule as a 
portal. Strongly covered members and recesses of many doorways and gateways 
result, from the same esthetic feeling. Such views harmonize with another mo- 


Pee a kt eee 
pi weREENON ay Stites gies (pile? Got deldue’ diay bevive? ..9vid 
oes on: dow ‘Isdgauis aeech eis ai ataiaaco #1  @paeb Lind - Iséagaugoa }o 
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tek bas os fe eeodw ,sysiblicd #éste tedto bas ,seavod Idemetizeq. aos Leg 
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; ’ aap ae ” pootda0% eons send: S2t:. 
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We  gindoP nc: Sewot aemigemoe e178 adiioxed eons 104 MOLII94 wihie ‘sakoug ecd.te 
ae | yabdietaoo- eblie of6 .méyetaeg 10 efjneist 9. to mot gi gates déiw Soieials 
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“eu into beteved seota naelo atid gaibliog add ‘qésne yer ono todd. ogedtev 
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A, 


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a ede gated .qoere oot ed -g6a faue-bns jebia dose sts degistt e1s.squea be. 
betey me awode 293°.y24 beaker 22 Wwrggiogsi ties ede. sedgid ert Teytod 
~ qete 3 ‘gattoatog itiw ows awode Bef ait ak ‘tial Yio busty eis bas .¢ yb 
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oss to ages eft aebined .elgae as je dono ayeizise s ef GOS .gs% bas ,2qsie't 
th gtotwixe ett co tH etoted aqets e_tcius of Yismodeuo a4 ti ,floreg eye is 189. 
eit inwdoedidew tot evisos encoler a brotts oaedd bas. (68S .f68 apt) 

Z gnth Lind and Yo tatdedxe add dziw bestaomssi ed of ete goiloteg 938: ivaed 

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07 ‘gaifoesotg & ylao ed: dowg eysiriss ot tI .westsl edt as aaiot to tase 
id edt to yiosasnos a8 88 HISSGGE yleted. si eam Loo mort gigi l yd besroqque. 
$o goteasiget oivedtee edt Ji of bedosdds Jovasie myterol & evil ap get 


; Sad pa vine ~ se sane ae genera ylerivae wobiaa at. taeudesut dove 
= 3 Rasa re bewtai ydeweds ef Tie 


3  mogseesT syoiviad 30 
1s) .eystieut bax .sovizh MO segssasg eysiiis/ 

bss ‘olga 7 pense ets enciosge vléaetott 

| ‘* en phen ¢ iste bogies) : 


i oe 
‘oO 


155 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, 
tive, revived into fashion very recently, for accenting doorways and porticos 
of monumental buildings. It consists in the Roman triumphal arch. It was 
used by Semper and others with more or less success on theatres, exhibition 
palaces, parliament houses, and other state buildings, whose size and import- 
ance are to Le made prominent. 

193. Entrance Porticos. 

The entrance frequently leads through a covered portico, sometimes open and 
sometimes closed, either placed entirely before the facade, as in Figs. 248 
to £60, or as in Figs. 260, 201 arranged entirely within the building between 
adjacent apartments. In both cases it is generally necessary to set the build- 
ing back from the building line of the square or street as much as the depth 
of the projecting portion. Entrance porches are sometimes found on Gothic 
churches, with a plan in form of a triangle or pentagon, one side containing 
the entrance doorway, the two others being treated as openings for passage 
(Fig. 262). Porticos may serve as entrances or gateways for carriages; they 
then recieve different names according to their arrangement and have the ad- 
vantage that one may enter the building with clean shoes. Covered carriage 
porches are preferable to carriage passages, which are easily exposed to draughts 
of air. 3 

194. Carriage Porches. 

Placing the entrance beneath a covered carriage porch is preferable in pal- 
aces and large public buildings. Floors of such porches must not be elevat- 
ed. Ramps are arranged at each side, and must not be too steep, being the 
longer, the higher the carriage porch is raised. Fig.2é4 shows an uncovered 
drive, and the ground story plan in Fig. 178 shows two with projecting roofs; 
Fig. 263 is a carriage porch with curved ramps, Fig. 2€é is one with straight 
ramps, and Fig.265 is a carriage porch at an angle. Besides the ramps of the 
carriage porch, it is customary to arrange steps before it on the exterior, 
(Figs. 283, 286), and these afford a welcome motive for architectural treatment. : 

Carriage porches are to be harmonized with the exterior of the building, 
and are therefore to te built of the same material and with the same treat- 
ment of forms as the latter. If the carriage porch te only a proteoting roof 
Supported by light iron columns, it merely appears aS an accessory of the build- 
ing, or like a foreign element attached to it. The esthetic impression of 
such treatment is seldon entirely pleasing. The effect of the entrance its- 
elf is thereby injured. 

19h. Carriage Passages. 

Carriage passages or drives, and gateways, termed gateway porticos if suf- 
ficiently spacious, are enclosed by simple sukdivided walls, or developed like 
& portico with colonnades or arches. If they are also used by persons on foot, 


VW \gummte fee eee , 7 
a) eo " i , 4 


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ements oot Shy wet teeinl | (TSS 329) pbsnaoloo 6 yd 10 
aay foun sayeinne. pon ca ,tixe ne vilerney onde 2 sone1in6 egsiziso ed? | 
of ai seysiriso ‘to tedawa egiei 6 if { gaibligd eit to twoo ede al Bavows 
Protests ek $i Moe anit onse ‘ed? Ja bas aacidoeith vod Pa besoegue eg 
- atixe” bas; agons 1396 eqatsiss. 998 ts gee woiredal eit ai ates ag ‘aeyelsise tot 
a ‘ylivorih evia yathlind of? t2 ,hegastm oe od cidevete7g {fiw bas .potblind 
ae lg ode asdu 30. (38 427 at se(%) m1 20 esdiv. edd és seaside edd enioiba 
P§BO.G 10. 19022209 soos tine eldugh ® vd ede fagor ‘Betceanon od of Bzod wgiereg © 
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> A908. ,859 227), wth bid, ads io 
ws. ke eilsh cess mes bas seluditae’. .o 

: ty eg Lie “glndi sant eit. bet 
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BP sas (lac. boocerebay’ ag ot doe. ai sivdiseor ya tied gosetins 10 sludiseey edz, 
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7 hips cals. bin fevel OPER edd wo eBOO1 daptet tb edé od oyevasg 


 anipsnco, 3 ult 


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wehbe, baw. ears. absz ase bes. bhe ase" sgeitzes. & aa besaaxd seid a9 ysweleg © 

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fe mm, 58: eipdigeay ont Joip's fasivsy wetigid bas regis i 6 easos ¢ ted | ah ev tea ‘ 
nepi spied” bed { optic) axon) pusotisse eid to, «bie Tiong ‘deedgid edd ic one 

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| ROR. banyash ullevay, gabed (eidadtsass, 49 avoids qe vlinivegee’ nedw slud- 
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Bw sce ‘bus 9 ladidage edd so togieiy, € ‘a. bereice enoct gextt ods aa uetiesaea ’ 
=get-angsdnon, palhLind. off 2y. sigitedal add yd ebem, poinaciqat’ dv ebideb. Lied” 
‘a nigeqee. x04 snetiaorg. eo fou désa ited eas itne cm adaeadiags is 


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Von ud 


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ast git) séiso7e teqqu eid of gatbael easouvisde edd 03 enastiae eid” ye 


if f poot-aean , a8 ‘awwi ‘adds “aeinols ieee ‘elt at. yaamee nindizos bas cre 


qs edt, toons ton Jove “ad noite xabeb’ af e9nes” 


158 """ BROHTTECTURAL COMPOSITION. — 


these are protected by a corresponding separation, either ty a raised walk 
or by a colonnade (Fig. 287). 

The carriage entrance is also generally an exit, so that carriages must turn 
around in the court of the building? If a large number of carriages is to 
be expected in both directions and at the same time ‘or if it is impossible 
for carriages to turn in the interior, separate carriage entrances and exits 
are advisable. These may be on different sides or on the same side of the 
building, and will preferably be so arranged, if the building site directly 
adjoins the street at the sides or rear (Plan in Fig.185), or when the plan 
permits both to be connected together by a double entrance portico, or a car- 
riage passage is provided at separate and suitable points of the main facade 
of the building (Fig.2é8, 307). 

c. Vestibules and Entrance Halls. 
196. The Vestibule. 

The passage from entrance portico to interior of the building is formed by 
the vestibule or entrance hall. By vestibule is not to ke understood only the 
ante-room next the entrance, separated by this from external connection with 
the street, court, or garden, but it also signifies the hall, which forms a 


passage to the different rooms on the same level and also frequently contains 
the entrance to the staircase leading to the upper stories (Pi, 229). 

In Italian palaces of the late Renaissance, the vestibule was much increas- 
ed in size to accomodate numerous servants in attendance on visitors. The 
gateway was then treated as a carriage entrane and was made large and Wide. 
Vestibules in Florence by Bbramante were seldom more than a passage with tun- 
nel vawit, but became a larger and higher vaulted room. The vestibule became 
one of the highest problems, for the staircase (next Chap.) had before been 
merely dignified and convenient, was then presented to the eye and to the 
imagination as an element of beauty, and was directly included in the vesti= _ 
bule, The entrance hall became of equal importance with similar halls in north- 
ern and southern Germany. In the upper stories, this forms an ante=room like 
the hall on the ground floor, a corridor or passage to the rooms. 

197. The Entrance Hall. 

This ante room for passage will then be termed the entrance hall or vesti- 
bule, when especially spacious or remarkable, being usually designed some= 
what like a portico, and frequently decorated by sculptured and painted orna- 
mentation. As the first rooms entered by a visitor, the vestibule and entrance 
hall decide the impression made by the interior. jf the building contains fes- 
al apartments, the entrance hail must not be prominent for especial magnifi- 
cence in decoration; it must not excel the apartments in this way, and must 


Rot delay the visitor on its own account, but rather by quiet and noble forms 


ae - woLT0woo JasUTOB TINT hy ae, 5 5 
isqotg emtoos iow leaissxe wi? od. utes Limite: yd bas eudoetidow encta to 
ge one to ri iaa aed laasotgt eds - asta. toe tis ee edd rot aay 
.2ta6G 
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., t Sips od bsbbe 1e@t10g. eff «ot moat efatagen s diiw .eysageg 102 qlas sinsdret 
gO SIIA® 10 Sludisasy edz. . ¥9ts quaaG avounizaea « 10% bebaesni ton anied .ebia 
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begestts ow ed bluoda eluditesyv od? - -swibsdgil toaaib efneveig aonety. 
dead Yo Stqeb ed¢ to eelegerth oft eved-ysa gixe wgiel e¢t .etsups fos H 
#8) gn073 ady of feliaasq 0. abeogl. ad? 0 igdt:gaied aixs tiene asl ans 
a os soaeisse eft xen, 116g eft: good of yasemscpn ylicewpet? ei $1 {ESS ESS 
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al ITS .2n27) .fevel xefyid s gs Lisd soneisae off to atusy ezorls of agqods 
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‘ita 3 me Bee 


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ide wewomen owt bae ogcazsq tobin [siiaeo s ,pamuios to aot 
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a4 . teoage rewormss isteves odal afpqs eidsiieve eli gaibivib ys 
watzas sig ,yiedl ai. (itaenpet as eqoswd wiedduea wi egatblind lebtelag af 

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q 4 ? ANS git af as Toga sh cata eis. ai vileiesqes Sols yuote tegqu as al 
bia a  wetsimiivoet ...62t 

4 se borinps . tnoaiser? aakbant a evieuss elind eoustéae agaibiiad yaas a] 

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aft ets nelgusxe leciqys wet @ anelq to alingeb ot goiog suodtit {i tiv’ 
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~ © aed ae 
q panes, ree 
P baie } xr Ceres ete © 


157 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN. 
of stone architecture and by similarity to the external architecture prepare 
him for the increased effect presented by the internal decoration of the apart-— 
ments. 

198. Treatment. 

The entrance hall is that room through which passage 1s opened to the prii- 
cipal portions of the interior (Fig.270), but it is not usually a room for «t- 
tendants, only for passage, with a separate room for the porter added to the 
side. being not intended for a continuous cccupancy, the vestibule or entrznce 
hall should te less lighted than the other rooms, where good lighting is a chiet 
requisite; in palaces, it usually reweives indireot light only, since its cen- 
tral location and the carriage porch and other arrangements before the main en- 
trance prevents direct lighting. The vestibule should be so arranged, that 
if not square, its larger axis may have the direction of the depth of the build- 
ing, its smaller axis being that of the facade or parallel to the front (Figs. 
271, 272). It is frequently necessary to keep the part next the entrance on 
the same level as the portico or threshold of the entrance, then ascending by 
steps to those parts of the entrance hall at a higher level. (Figs. 271, 272). 

By the rooms placed over the reception hall and the requirements for support-— 
. ing them, one must be guided in the treatment of the entrance hall; it there- 
fore frequently has columns, piers, etc., to support the ceiling, and these 
are to be arranged regularly on both sides of the principal axis. With two 
rows of columns, a central wider passage and two narrower side passages may 
be arranged (Figs. 272, 281). But the entrance hall appears more dignified if 
without dividing columns. The use of columns partially depends on the height 
which may be given to the entrance hall. If they are not to appear stumpy,fcr 
relatively small height free columns are advisable, to produce a good effect 
ty dividing the available space into several narrower spaces. . | 

In palatial buildings in southern Europe as frequently in Italy, the entrazce 
hall occupies at least one and one-half stories, a mezzanine story Leing usual- 
ly placed above the ground story, above which is the floor of the principal 
story; vaulting the rooms is customary in southern Europe and requires so much 
height that the entrance hall eannot be made low. it is always desirable fcr 
the entrance hall to have a respectable height, and therefore it frequently 
extends through two full ste ies. &4n entrance corridor is sometimes arrangec 
in an upper story also, especially in the principal story, as in Fig. 274. 

199. Peculiarities. 

In many Luiidings entrance halls receive a-peculiar treatment, required part- 
ly by local conditions {Fig. 105) partly ty the special purposes they are to 
fulfil. Without going into details of plans, a few typical examples are il- 
lustrated. An important part is played by entrance halls in theatres and otI- 


esr sc) fe “ MOTTIAOWMCO au Tone. : gal 
: otis « at 31 ‘adenrteg Yo éredaur dsoiy evieost of bebsetnt agate iad 4 

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es ot Liss. soustdas edd nt ffew mide oistsges 6 yaltbbs yd aaseice brtw to nolt 
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F “" (otr bas as egtt eee) moot be 
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. ogi |, ed tyes sb sort dauide ad ‘to “mobi ii odd jostorq ot oludidesy bese lane 
sine s10ted enoiseesorg “af si0Y a snodvag Stodw moot~etus ‘as gaibiverd” 
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© agisvoes s bas eaatensath {seaoloo oved eani sence yent oitis« evouvone ed? 
Pe oe ere ttecy ofeveb 


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sbal weigo ai alisd yoek (ers ova agit) .setestsde exsves « dtiw ayewts 
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Tat eyewtiese %6 adsl S sedqsdd 
iste £08 


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158 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
er buildings, intended to receive great numbers of persons.’ It is advisable .,. 
especially in northern Europe, to place wind screens at entrance doors leading 
to entrance halls. In entrarce halls of theatres several entrance doors are 
arranged (opening outwards). If external walls are sufficiently thick to heve 
sufficient space between doors placed at outside and inside of wall, the use 
of wind screens will be avoided; it is advisable to avoid an internal projec— 
tion of wind screens by adding a separate thin wall in the entrance hall to 
form a vestibule, only beyond this wall treating the entrance hall as a unit- 
ed room.: (Compare Figs. 275. and 178). 

For churches it is appropriate to pass from exterior to interior through an 
enclosed vestibule, to protect the interior of the church from draugths, also 
providing an ante-room, where persons may form in processions before enterin: 
the church. A prominent part in modern architecture is played by waiting rooms 
of great railway stations. From their peculiar requirements and account of 
the enormous traffic, they sometimes have colossal dimensions and a peculiar 
develo ment. 

In English country houses, the entrance ‘hall is generally an entirely clossd 
apartment or noble hall that can be warmed, and in accordance with ancient 
traditions, it forms an indispensable part of the family residence, being ac- 
cordingly decorated by paintings, arms, hunting trophies, etc., though frequent- 
ly treated in a more simple and common manner (Fig.278). A quite different 
character appears in the vestibule of French private residences. Just as not- 
ly treated in its way as the English entrance hall, it does not produce the 
Same impression of cosiness and comfort, but ty its formal treatment always is 
a pleasing transition from the external architecture to the internal decora- 
tion (Fig. 277). | 

200. waiting Corridors. 

with vestibules and entrance halls belong waiting corridors, which are in 
France common in Court Houses, etc.:, the so-called Salles de pas perdus. These 
are long corridors to which the public is restricted, sometimes transacting 
necessary business with officials, sometimes awaiting an order to enter the 
court room. These rooms are high, airy, and are treated with massive richness, 
always with a severe character. (Figs.278, 279). Many halls in other kinds 
of buildings possess a similar character (see Figs. 280, 317a). 

Chapter 2. Plans of Stairways. 
201. General, 

"Very careful attention is required to designing stairways; for difficulties 
are great, to te overcome in giving them a suitable location, and one not 
injurdous to the rest of the building.: Praiseworthy are staircases that are 
light, spacious, and easy, thereby inviting one to visit the building". 


ee 


Ne ee re oll pee, hk Oe Se 
Pees Ps -Siateesequco ‘wauroartaens | . gat 


Bi athe tal annctaa! eid tof dood .S.s9esgedd-nf ebtow geeds ylasen a 
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#783 perreeprete isinewonom to, eaods ylisioegqse ,paibiied edt to yisedai ed? 
ee a ci cee at _peasniin ss to eut09.s 
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159 _ ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, ; 

In nearly these words in Chapter 28, Book 1 of his "architecture, Palladio 
points out the chief requirements for these important connecting members of 
the structural organism. Very much depends on correct arrangement of the 
Staircases. Yet this will te materially simplified by that said in the last 
Division in reference to planning the building in general, and that in Part 
Til of this Handbuch on their arrangement and construction, parts in detail, 
and on external staircases. There remains the designing of staircases in 
the interior of the building, especially those of monumental character. 

a.Forms of Staircases. 
202. Historical. 

To characterize staircases of different periods of art, the following points 
become prominent. In antiquity, staircases in the interior of the building 
could acquire no importance. Principal apartments were limited to the ground 
floor; stairways leading to upper stories were enclosed between walls, and 
appear to have received no architectural treatment, and were guite steep.: This 
is assumed from the writings of Vitruvies (Book Ix, Chap.II) and is proved by 
extensive and partially preserved staircases of Roman amphitheaters, planned 
with extraordinary skill, to provide access to all parts of the building for 
great multitudes of persons, with quick egress for them in the most verfect 
manner. Staircases of mediaeval buildings are generally placed on facades 1h 


Cpen stairways or stair towers and mostly consist of Winding steps. Desire 

for richer treatment appears everywhere under influences of late Gothic and 
aarly Renaissance in numerous gracefully grouped and effective creations. 

The monumental stairways in interiors of buildings are among the creations 

of the Italian Renaissance, and they have been transferred to modern: architect- 

ure without material change. specially in public and palatial buildings, 

while dwellings have comfortable, and attractive staircases. 

stairs will be considered from the point of view of suitability, without re- 
ference to diversities in material, construction, and forn. 

1. Stairs in Straight Flights. 

The steps of the staircase sometimes continue in one flight without inter- 
ruption, but they are generally at pro er intervals divided into separate 
flights by walking spaces or landings, with or without change in direction. 

The most varied forms result from influences affecting arrangement in the in- 
terior of the building, yet these may be classed under a number of simple 
types. 
£03.° Straight Staircases. 
The form most convenient and appropriate for ascent and descent is the strai; h 
Staircase without turns from beginning to end. It may te enclosed between two 
walls extending Leside the steps (Fig. 281) be built free on both sides in the 


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io. alin ARCS Ge ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 

room (Fig.282), or may be free on one side and built against a wall on the oth- 
er(Fig.@683).: In all cases, particularly if the height is very great, this re~- 
guires a great length of space, and in the first case a considerable width as 
well, if the staircase must not appear very narrow in proportion to its lengtl. 
and height. If several stadrcases of this kind must be placed above each oth- 
er, the maximum distance must be traveled in passing from floor to floor. but 
if not required to economize space, the straight staircase is grand and Simple 
in general effect and is not excelled by any other. It is therefore partic- 
ularly adopted to monumental buildings, either is single or double in plan, 

or may be arranged symmetrically to 45 or C D (Figs.: 281, 288).: 

One of the noblest structures of the first kind is the Scala Regia (Royal 
Stairs) (by Bernini) leading to pontificial apartments in Vatican at Rome ( 
Fig. 284), which extends in a single flight for more than 197 ft.: in length, 
and even appears much longer in perspective than is actually the case, for 
between the pair of columns its width at the lower end is 27.5 ft. this di- 
minishes to 1@.4 ft. at the uper end. 4A magnificent example of straight 
double staircase was in Hotel de Ville in Faris, destroyed in 1871. Fig.: 
cil represents on one half, the plan of the ground story, on the other being 
that of the principal story. 

BSpecially in stories at upper ends of* such staircases, they are furnished 
with galleries to ccunect them with the adjoining rooms, and these are eith- 
er treated like porticos (Fig.211), or are free above and are merely enclosed 
by balustrades next the staircase (Fig.281). As a simple staircase before halls, 
in entrance halls, in courts, ete., the straight staircase, as in Fig. 282, is 
very frequently employed. (Fig. 260, etc.). This type is also used for ordinary 
Stairs with moderate height of story, iif arranged along a passage required for 
communication or in a generally accessible space/: 

204.' Staircases in Several Flights. 

The directi,m may generally be changed for each flight between landings, pro- 
ducing staircases in several flights. If this change always occurs in the 
same direction, a simple staircase results, if in bcth directions, we have the 
double staircase in two flights. 

£05. Staircases in Two Flights. 

The staircase in two flights is formed when the upper flight forms on the 
plan an extension of, or a right, acute, or obtuse angle with the lower flight, 
the latter are rare. The staircase in Fig. 285 is divided in two flights at 
right angles, and its entire length appears at a glance, the lower flight ap- 
pearing in front view and the upper in side view. Suitable treatment produces 
an interesting or even picturesque and effective view. These advantages make 
the.staircase very appro priate, where as in Fig. 278, it is built.free in the 


t : 
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Teas ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 

room and forms a part of its decoration.: That it is suited to even monument~ 
al buildings is shown by Fig. 285, also by plans of the Palace of Archduke Lud- 
wig Victor in Vienna (Fig.185), and by upper and lower entrance halls of Cap- 
itol at Winterthur, furnished with two such staircases (Fig. 310d).- 

by far gost comonly used is the half space staircase, as in Fig. 288; for 
it is easily and compactly arranged with rooms of ordinary depth, is enclos- 
ed by itself, permits access from principal landing to the different rooms in 
that story, and at the same time ascent to the next story takes the shortest 
way. This is the most appropriate form, though not the most elegant in its 
appearance, since the upper flight of the stairs usually appears from beneath 
a dark mass; and as it cuts across the opening zt midheight of the story, it 
partially obstructs the view in the stairway. This frequently occurs in It- 
alian palaces (Fig. 272).. Flights of stairs are there quite broad and are 
mostly enclosed between side walls, each flight appearing by itself as in 
straight staircases. As a principal staircase extending from one story to the 
next, it ends above in open form; external defects then dissapear, and it is 
partly not visible on account of the enclosing walls and the ending of the 
up. er part of the stairway, as shown by Fig. 28¢ (plan of ground story). 

It is often preferable to round off angles of the landing according to dotted 
lines in Figs. 288, 292, 
208, Staircases in Three Flights. 

Combining ty j forms in Figs. 285, 288 produces a staircase in three flights, 
as in Figs. 272, 287, a third short flight being added telow or above to the 
half space stairs, usually at right angles to the middle string or wall, so 
as to begin or complete the ascent. This gives the lowest or second upper 
story greater height, without being compelled to require larger space for 
the stairway, with equal rises of steps. This form is likewise very frequent 
in Italian palaces. A good effect is also produced by three space staircase, 
which changes direction at right angles in Fig. 271, 288, especially if the 
second flight can have a greater length than the other two, producing a less 
obstructed view in the stairway (Fig.277). 

207. Staircases in Four Flights. 

Likewise originated full space staircases, where as in Fig. 289, the flights 
from landing to landing turn at right angles, and end above the point of bkegin- 
ning. Staircases in Figs. 288, 289, are open towards the well-hole, and when 
several stories are arranged above each other, they recieve light through cky- 
light. They therefore possess special advantages for location in the inter- 
ior of the building, and as shown by numerous examples and by the given plens, 
they are capable of effective architectural treatment. Both forms demand })-ath-— 
er more floor space than many others on account of well~hole enclosed by front 


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1éz - ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITICN. | 
string, but they are otherwise easily arranged in plan, since they afford a suit-. 
able oppurtunity for varying ratio of dength to breadth of stairway. But there 
is a minimum limit, fixed in accordance with Art.220, which is that not less 
than three or four steps must be placed between landings. 
208. Staircases in Two branches or Doubled. 

The most diverse forms of staircases are produced from the Simple type forms 
by doubling them on the axes of entrance hall or vestibule, and which are gli- 
ven by lines 4 5 and C D in Figs. 281, 282 and 285. These compound forms re- 
guire no extended explanation, being readily derived from the preceding, and 
their use in interiors of buildings will te treated hereafter. The most use- 
ful staircase in two branches is that formed from Figs. 285, 28@ and 268 by 
Symmetrical arrangement atout the axis AB of the middle flight, with which it 
begins, and which is divided to right and left. Repeated on the axis C D, it 
may be termed a doutle staircase. Examples are the staircase in Fig. 290, that 
in Fig. 246, and that in corner building in Fig. 306; also in Fig. 307, etc. 

In Fig. 305 the entrance to ground story is found on bisecting line of the an- 
gle, and therefore in this direction is the entrance to the Staircase, but 

the exits in upper story are on both sides perpendicular to corridors parallel 
to street facades. 

It may te said with regard to these staircases in two branches, that their 
effect is more spacious and stately than that of simple forms, but the demand 
for space is correspondingly greater. And when space is not abundant, a simn- 
ple and spacious staircase is decidedly to be preferred to one of two branches, 
restricted in plan (see art. 221). Burchhardt says that a chief innovation in 

the architecture of palaces in Late Renaissance consists in doubling staircas- 
es for sake of symmetry, after men had already become accustomed to such in 
gardens and courts after bramante. They either commenced below with two separ- 
ate staircases, or one staircase was divided in two atove the first landing. 
Great merit is due to Genoa with its steep flights of steps, where care must 
always have been taken to obtain for the numerous external stairways a good and 
Leautiful effect. 
<. winding Staircases. 
£09. Simple Forms. : 

Instexd of changing the direction from landing to landing, as in the preced- 
ing straight typical forms, this may also Le effected from step to step by 
winding staircases with a solid newel or a well-hole. These are either entire- 
ly of winders, as in Figs. 293, 294, or partially so, but usually are enclos- 
ed by a semicircle. Winding staircases are easily adapted to either a2 “icir- 
edcular or polygonal, an oval or rectangular room, and is therefore more read- 


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182 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 
ily employed on an irregular building site, than are stairs of other types ( 
side stairs in palace, Figs. 185, 186). They occupy least space on plan, and 

_ admit of access at any height and at all points of the perimeter; they are al- 
so the only form suited to any stride, since on the radial steps may be selec~ 
ted at pleasure any proportion of tread to fixed rise, both ascending or des- 
cending. 

“ This type has the defect in case of small radius, that the change in direc- 
tion from step to step is perceptible, ascent and descent being quite trouble- 
some, but this almost entirely dissapears with a larger well-hole. On account 
of this difficulty the winding staircase is not employed where it is preferable 
for its other advantages, as when the arrangement of straight staircases is ob- 
jectionable for local reasons (lack of space, irregularity, etc.). It was pre- 
viously stated that winding staircases almost exclusively employed during thé 
middle ages and the Early Renaissance. 

As historical examples in Italian buildings, which seldom exhibit this typi - 

cal form in the interior, are the circular staircase in Belvedere of Vatican 

(by Bramante, 1508), and the later oval staircase in barberiti Palace in Rome 

(by Borromini), only differing from the former by its elliptical plan (Fig. 204). 

Both are of considerable dimensions (about 29.5 ft.:in clear width); the hollow 

newell is composed of twelve Doric columns, which follow the helical curvature 

of the strings and balustrade. among designs of allied type, though of differ- 

ent form, are the elegant winding staircases in middle and southern Germany, 

mostly of the 18th century (Fig.298); then among numerous French examples of 

Berly Renaissance ie fhe beautiful newell staircase of Chateau of Chateaudun, 

of beginning of 16th century, Figs. 295, 297. Differing from most contemporary 

designs, the latter is enclosed in the building, permitting free passage between 

& and B.. The square plan is by conical vaults transformed into an octagon, and 
this into a a circle by the eight corbelled out columns supporting the helical 
cornice. | 

kodern architecture has rightly s changed to more simple forms of the ~ statir- 
cases, at the same time with e prixtical limitation of their use. They are en- 
ployed for minute uses in their most compact fam as narrow isolated stairs with 
newells, but otherwise are only used for subordinate purposes, since they are 
entirely unsuitable for use ky many persons. with a wide well-hole, they now 
occur as main staircases, usually in semicircular form, as in Fig. c91. 

210. Compound Forms. 

winding stairs are suited to combine “ith straight ones. Most common is the 
type in Fig. 292, which may be placed in rooms ending in either rectangular, 
circular, or polygonal form,: and which retains both the advantages and the de- 


2 


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124 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, . 
fects of the two forms composing it. It is appropriate where little space is 
available and an intermediate landing is omitted on account of low height of 
story, as in apartment houses and other buildings for purposes of utility. Te 
insert a walking space in form of a sector of a circle instead of a few steps 
is more diturbing than advantageous, if the space is not wide enough to require 
at least two ordinary steps thereon (Art. 222). as main staircases, compound 
forms are usually arranged in two branches in monumental buildings. It is us- 
ual to commence with a middle straight flight, which tranches from the landing 
in two curved arms (Fig.29@). Fig. 216 is a notable example. ixternal straight 
flights of steps, much as usually entrance and exit steps, are usually construct- 
ed with more or less curved steps, gradually becoming wider (Fig. 177). 

b. arrangement and Form of Staircases. _ 

£11. Main and Private Staircases. 

according to purposes and importance, main and private staircases are disting- 
uished. The first is for public use in most buildings, but the latter is for 
private use and for the passage of the occupants. As a room for general use, 
the main stairway must be easily recognized and accessible; only in family and 
private residences is required a certain seraration and isolation. but on en- 
tering public buildings, one shald not doubt where to seek the main stairway. 
This does not alone usually suffice, since it generally ends free in the prin- 
Cipal story, and it is desirable to so arrange that two flights may not come 
above each other. 

To provide communication with the upper stories, side stairways are placed 
in lerger buildings in addition to the main stairway, and these extend from cel- 
lar to attic.’ As service stairs, they provide servants with access to the 
housekeeping rooms, so that the main stairway is kopt free; as stairs for pri- 
vate use, they are required to directly connect a series of rooms in different 
stories, but belonging together. Side stairs must sometimes serve for sever- 
al of these purposes and be planned accordingly. But it is especially the main 
Staircase whose suitable location and arrangement will cause difficulties. 

1. Location and Direction. 
elz. Location of Princi.al Landing. 

In harmony with the internal subdivision of the building, the main staircase 
is either located at an external side of the building, or more commonly at its 
center. It may then be partially or entirely surrounded by rooms. This is ce- 
termined ty the location of the principal landing, since accessibility of adjoin- 
ing rooms is thereby fixed. If the principal landing lies in the interior otf 
the building, then according to arrangement of entrance hall, the space in the 
ground story is divided in two equal parts, tig. 299, or in two unequal ones, 
Fig. 200; both methods permit access to and from the staircase in the three 


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4th ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 
directions indicated. In most public buildings and in larger business build- 

ings and stores, this separation is not otjectionable, but it will freguentl: 

be very disturbing in private or apartment houses. Placing the entrance froi 
facade to the side or rear beneath the intermediate landing is only permiss- 
ible in ordinary or merely useful buildings, or in stairways of subordinate 
importance, according to art. 169. 

In smaller designs, the staircase and principal landing are placed against 
an external wall, obtaining the advantage that the rooms form a compact ser- 
ies (Fig.301). Access to them can occur but in two directions. This arrange- 
ment is preferred in French plans, even for main stairways of larger build- 
ings, as it becomes possible to place the windows above princiral landing at 
the same height as other windows of the building. The same advantage is affcrd- 
ed by a location, Fig. 202, together with unbroken connection with all rooms, 
Fig.201. This has the defect that passage must be arranged around the stair- 
way, not only requiring much space but also a wider passage for reaching rear 
apartments. jt is therefore seldom arranged in this way (Fig. 291).: but is 
preferable if (Fig. 203) it opens into a court surrounded by porticos, or 
(Fig. 304) it gives access to several intersecting wings of the building. 

The former arrangement is found in austrian kuseum of art and Industry of Vier. 
na (Fig.337); the latter occurs in hospitals, etc. According to art. 126, in- 
tersections of compound ground plans are generally suitable for location of 
stairways, lighted by sky lights, and also when wings of the building partial- 
ly intersect, as indicated by dotted extension in Fig. 204. The principal 
landing may give access in the three directions toward the front and also di- 
rectly sidewise to the passage to the rear. Thus in the School Building, art. 
131, and generally in all stairways placed entirely in the interior of the 
building. The last building shows that even for this location of the stair- 
case, lighting by direct side light is possible. jf the wings of the build- 
ing form an angle, the staircase is sometimes placed on the line intersecting 
the angle. ere will Le chosen either the arrangement in Fig. 3206 or ‘the 
staircase with two branches in Fig. 305. among other advantages, the last 
has that of avoiding acute angles toward the stairway in Fig,. 30¢, and one may 
enter from it either corridor of right or left wing. By arranging it as in 
Fig. 305 better lighting of the side corridor can be obtained, and a skylight 
must be provided. 

218.. accessibility and Separation. 

Various plans in Figs. 299 to 30é show the location to be assigned general- 
ly to the staircase with regard to greatest possible ease of access to the 
main part of the building. Therefore, in large blocks of houses, barracks, etc. 
staircases are repeated at fixed intervals, are externally accessible, and are 


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188 _ ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. - 
nostly of fire-proof eonstruction.: But with accessibility, separation is also nec- | 
essary in certain cases.: Especially in private residences and also in buildings ope 
to the public, like theatres, halls, post-,dfices, etc. it is important to arrange | 
the connection with the entrance halis, so that those ascending and descending may | 
be protected -from draughts.: This is more difficult and more necessary, since stair- | 
ways extending through the entire height of the building are esstential for upward 
-ventilation.: wind screens are placed at proper points to prevent draughts. ° 
214.: Direction.: 

besides the location of staircase is to be determined the direction of the flight 
of stairs in different cases. Both on entering the Luilding and on reaching the up 
per stories, one should not doubt how to turn to reach the rooms. This is best at- 
tained by ascending staircase directly from entrance without change of direction, | 
and one can directly see the route from the main landing. | 

215. Beginning and Ending of Staircases. 

It is usual to place the beginning of the staircase on one axis of the widely op- 
ened entrance hall, and that it may be more clearly seen, a number of steps someti: 
are allowed to project into the hall. It is also desirable to have the last fligh 
of steps upward accord with axis of principal apartment of that story. Therefore 
if a large hall lies in the front of upper story., it is natural to make the arrenz 
ment in Fig.207; if it occupies a part of the rear facade, that in Fig.: 008 is « =: 
able one. In the last case, the room is reached without change of direction; ir 
the first, a half turn is required at intermediate landing. In both, the beginrir 
of the staircase is on the axis of the entrance of the building, the end being cn 
that of the hall. 

If one of the halls or principal apartments is required in the ground story, thi- 
hall is preferably placed on the axis of entrance hall and entrance, the beginnin: 
of the staircase teing placed on the transverse axis with a quarter turn to riglit 
or left (Fig.310), so that wide passages beside the stairs (Fig.308) may then fcr: 
an attractive approach to the principal apartment, or staircases may be placed at 
each side of entrance hall(Fig.272). The stiarcase is placed unconditionally i: t 
direction of transverse axis, if (Fig. 309) it must be aecessitle from both front <~ 
rear sides, or a carriage passage, with which it is connected, leads through the 
building,: In these and other cases, the plan is frequently symmetrically doubled 
about the principal axis, the entrance hall being in the ground story connected 
with two main staircases, which end in the upper story in a common hall (Figs. 21C: 
310d) or at opposite ends (Fig.311) to make different parts of the building ac- 
cessible. 

2ié. Twin Staircases. : 

The same purpose is served by combining two staircases having a common intermed. 

iate landing, as arranged in a numter of old and new buildings, and which may be 


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187 | ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. : 

termed twin staircases.- Thus"Pig.: 210e is one of the two main staircases of 
Technical High School at Charlottenberg executed with very imposing dimensions, 
and arranged parallel to main axis along the passages around the great inner 
court in center of the building and in two stairways, one above the other, to 
connect with the three stories. A person may start at A or B and ascend the 
staircase with a half turn in the direction of the arrow s-aé or B-5, or travel 
in the approximately straight direction 4-B or 5-A: Also the main staircase 
of Opera House in Frankfurt -o-t-M (Pig. 814).: 

Two staircases may be combined in still other ways, when their junction is 
effected at the upper landing instead of on the intermediate one.’ This may be 
dont’ when the principal story is two stories above the ground story. Since the 
staircase may terminate only in the main story, and in accordance with Art. 204, 
flights are not properly repeated above each other, the design must have such 
a length, that one must either ascend by a single staircase the entire height 
from ground story to principal story, which forms the second upper story, or 
reach the same point by two staircases placed behind or bedide each other. The 
first leads from ground story to first upper story, and at its ending commences 
the second, which ends free in the princi jl story. The two stairways are thus 
placed in direct connection; one extending through the entire height of two 
_ lower stories, the other through that of two upper stories. 

such an arrangement is carried out in Techhical High School at Munich, and is 
represented in Figs. 210a, 210b. The entrance to ground story is found on the 
main axis henetth the story landing. One may thence pass into the first upper 
story, or by the staircase divided in three branches, to the point lying immed- 
iately above it in the second upper story, where is the entrance to the large 
hall, or may change direction to right or left. The connection with the rooms 
in the rear is arranged in upper stories by halls at Loth sides and in ground 
story by one beneath the stairs. 

ei?7. Groups of Stiarcases. 

Extraordinary numbers of people are to te assumed in many buildings, to ensure 
accessitility to all their parts in different stories. Particularly in theatres 
concert halls, arcuses, etc., it is necessary to reculate access of the public 
to different parts, especially to provide for quickly emptying the building, and 
this is done by separate fire-proof staircases, which occur in like number and 
arrangement of the main axis and lead to attractive entrances. {Plans of Dép- 
zig Hall, Figs.178, 181). 

an 6xample, where with reference to esthetic effect, toth suitability and se- 
curity were both taken into account in its design, is afforded by City Theatre 
at Riga, by Eohnsedt, Fig.212. One may pass from entrance hall at p, and also 
from side entrance at p, to ground story vestibule and to landings at the sane 


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eae "—sxAROHITRECTURAL COMPOSITION.. : 
height by means of the other ascents I, II, and III, which lead from the cor- 
responding vestibules to staircases of the I, II, III tiers.: These stairsa are 
both ingeniously and economically arranged as twin staircases (art. 21¢) in 
three flights beside and over each other, but are separated from each other 

by massive partition walls and by landings. From the ground story upwards, 

the occupant of the I-tier uses the flight c, which terminates at x; that of 
the II tier first uses flight b, then a second flight carried over c, which 
likewise ends at x; finally, that of the III tier first ascends flight a, then 
a second over b and a third flight over c, to land at x. The crowding of the 
public is impossiboe if doors at y in the I and II tiers and those at a@ at 
height of the I tier are kept closed. Yet there must te opened between the acts, 
since no other staircases exist for passing fr,m tier to tier and to the foyer 
over the entrance hall at height of the I tier. 

In large theatres (Paris, Vienna, Frankfort-o-k, etc.’) a central state rail- 
way is placed between the side staircases of the different tiers. In Fig. 212 
(Grand Opera in Paris, by Garnier), the side staircases open freely into the 
halls around the principal staircase and serve for all tiers.: The ground 
staircase is reached directly from main entrance on the direction of the axis 
and through the great entrance hall from carriages placed Leneath the audience 
room, by two flights of stairs leading upwards. both steps and balustrades 
are curved as shown to produce a pleasing aopearance of the entire stairway 
design.: In Fig.314(Opera House in Frankfort-o-it by Lucae) side staircases are 
placed in closed stairways. In both, ascent of the main staircase begins in 
direction of the main axis while access to the tiers and to the foyer is di- 
verted to each side of the cuilding, so that the staircases must turn at right 
angles to the axis. 

The same requirements, direction of flights of stairs at commencement and 
ending, frequently leading to opposite points of the axis, occur in many oth- 
er examples (Figs.317,217a). On the other hand, the conditions and space at 
disposal frequently demand that the ending shall Le directly over the btegin- 
ning (Fig.2159.. It remains to refer briefly to certain peculiar forms, com- 
posed of winding and straight flights of stairs (Fig.21¢). The two-branched 
portions of these two staircases are in semicircular form with winding steps. 
The plan shows them at height of the uoper landing. This floor of the upper 
story is partially occupied by an opening to light the lower rooms ty ceil 
ing light. Therefore, the type of plan and combinations of the two staircases, 
one behind the other, is as here represented.,: 

£. arrangement and Treatment of Forms.: 
218. Space Required. : 
Based on investigations made in this Handbuch, staircases are to Le arranged 


Ae Ps 


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129 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 
and executed according to the preceding principles, - 

The space required is first to be fixed, and depends upon :- 
Ground plan of staircase, whether single or double, : 
Height of the riser and width of staircase, - 

£19.° Inclination and Stride.: 

Commence with the rate of inclination, since for a given height to be as- 
cended the length of the staircase on the plan is thereby fixed.: The tread 
and the riser are both in accordance with the dignity of the staircase and 
also with its height; they are to be made more convenient for the longer 
flights, or the greater the number of steps to be ascended in a straight line.,- 
Thus the Scala Regia (Fig.284) has 90 steps in a single flight, 41 steps being ~ 
between first and second landings, and these Steps have 4.75 inches rise to 
20.5 inches tread. The staircase in the Ducal Palace in Genoa ascends 25.1 
ft. from ground story to principal story by 80 steps, averaging 5.25 inches 
rise to from 1¢.2 to 17.7 inches tread, and these are interrupted by two walk- 
ing spaces, while our more recent and less dignified monumental buildings 
seldom have more than 20 to 25 steps in a single flight, and less than 5.5 to 
5.S rise to 13.@ to 12.0 inches tread scarcely occurs; with a moderate height 
of story, two flights of steps usually suffice with 12 to i5 stecs each, hav- 
ing ¢.7 to 6.9 inches rise for 11.0 to 1Cé5 inches tread. For servant's 
Stairs, 7.1 to 7.9 inches rise for 9.45 tp 7.9 inches tread ere vermissitle, 
when height of story is not great. 

It is to te remembered that ratio of tread to riser must be the same through- 
out. To effect this and to Simplify the figures, it is recommended that 
heights of stories be made multiples of height of riser, just as the length 
of a flight of steps on plan is a mnultirle of the tread, thus requiring heights 
of the stories to vary slightly, (Not usually practicable). If the number 
of steps has been fixed, then is to be determinedin accordance with the chos- 
en type, the division into one, two or more flights with landings between 
them.- In fixing dimensions, the following points are to be xept in view. : 

620.: Length of Flight of Steps. : 

4s for distances Letween landings or length of a flight, the extreme limit 
is given by the examples and results just given.' The usual rule that from 
12 to 15 steps should be allowed in a direct succession in a flight is entire- 
ly correct, for it is based on the usual height of story and of riser, also 
requiring that at least one intermediate landing Le arranged in main stair- 
case in each story. The mininu length of flight is to te not less than three 
Steps. Single steps should not be omitted to break a straight flight, since 
they are easioy overlooked, ‘are disturbing, and may even become dangerous. 

if several flights of steps extend above each other to the different stories 


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170 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITICN.: 
with appropriate arrangement of the plan and equal heights of senen: they - 
aust have corresponding head room; if heights of the stories differ bur little, 
then in lower stories one or two steps may be omitted from the flights and 
the width of landing inereased accordingly.: If the heights of stories are 
very different, typical forms of space stairs afford& means of equalizing 
them, since in Fig. 209 the middle flight may be entirely omitted and to the 
landing be given the entire width of the stairway.: If the ground story is 
higher than next story, this may be remedied by prefixing a flight at a pro- 
per place,- But except for special reasons, equal lengths should be given to 
flights of steps placed over each.other, to ensure that beneath the turns in 
the stairs there should remain sufficient head-room, not less than two-thirds 
to three-fourths the height of the story.. 

fei. width of Flight of Stairs.: 

The width of the stairs or length of steps is to be greater if enclosed 
Letween side walls (Lox stairs), than if open on one or both sides, and it 
must also be greater, the further the flight extends in a straight line. This 
is shown in Figs,: 264, 311; it results generally that in monumental buildings 
a width of stairs from 8.2 to 9.84 ft. is not unusual, and in tranched stair- 
cases the middle flight is generally still wider.’ There is also a mininun 
for stairs in two branches; for a certain width is necessary, even in a pri- 
vate residence, if it be used and is not to appear mean.’ This may be taken 
at about 6.56 ft.: for the middle flight and at 4.92 to 5.25 ft. for narrow- 
er side flights.: 

222. Dimensions of Landings.: 

It is a rule for the landing, that its width is to equal the length of the 
step, or that of the narrower flight of steps in a staircase in two tranches.: 
but the depth of landing is to be proportional to length of stride, so that 
one may take two or three ordinary steps of 21.6 to 23.8 inches each on it. 
Only then will it make the ascent of the stairs easier, and it is therefore 
better to entirely omit the landing, than to insert it to the detriment of a 
proper rate of tise: 

223. Lighting.. 

Lighting is of great importance for arrangement and appearance of the stairs, 
for a well lighted stairway makes an agreeable and charming impressi,n, just 
as a dark one produces an unpleasant and inharmonious effect. we naturally 
have then a feeling of insecurity in ascending or descending. Moreover the 
“Stairway usually serves. also for indirect lighting of adjoining rooms.’ There- 
fore the stairway must under all circumstances have direct light and it should 
be lighted as abundantly as.possible. The usual arrangement with the land- 
ing against an external wall causes the lighting of the stairway by side light, 


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171 . ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION.. 

the windows being placed at mid-height of the story, as in Figs. °c$9 and 300. 
‘This will therefore ke made apparent properly by projecting,he intermediate 
landing and stairway beyond the front of the building on the exterior; there- 
by obtaining more space for development of the design in the interior. but 

the windows of the stairway are not to be placed at the same height as those 

of the rooms; they should be placed above the principal landing and this should 
be against an external wall as in Figs. 3901 and 302. For a landing or flight 
of stairs to cut across the glass surface of the windows is inappropriate 

and ugly. 

In lighting ty a skylight, it is to be renenbered that if the staircase 
extends through several stories, intensity of the light in the lower story 
is naturally much reduced, and it is further greatly lessened by the shadows 
of the flights of stairs, As in 4rt.207, not only must a plan suitable for 
admission of light be chosen, but the lighting surface must be made very large. 
Requirements frequently differ greatly and must therefore be obtained in dif- 
ferent cases.' In the staircases extending through the two lower stories of 
the Federal Capito] at winterthur (Fig.310d), the ground story is sufficient- 
ly lighted by the high side light passing down from upper stair hall through 
two openings in ceiling of lower hall, which together have an area of only 
$7.& sq.. ft.: , or about one-nineteenth of the floor area of the room.: In the © 
House of the Museum Society at Stuttgard (Fih 209) the area of skylight amounts 
to 172 sq.ft.:or about one-seventh. and is admitted through well-holes tetween 
middie and side flights of the stairway; the last example also shows how sky 
light may be utilized for directly lighting adjoining rooms. In designs for 
sky lights, care must be taken to provide sufficient ventilation of stairway 
in accordance with Art. 1032. 

224, Treatment of Foras. 

Variety in architectural appearance and effect of the staircase is first 
fixed by the ground plan. The staircase ascending in a closed stairway ap- 
pears different from that combined into a spacious design with the entrance 
hall, portico, or porch, The treatment of the staircase hall is also to te 
distinct from that of the stairway.: Treatment of the forms is very varied, 
according to whether flights of steps are entirely free beneath or are support- 
ed by piers, columns, or vaults (For vaults beneath stairs and their decora- 
tion, see Art.172, Figs. 228,229) or are supported by walls at one end of the 
steps, or extens between entirely solid walls (box stairs).: 

It is less necessary to consider differences in form produced by construct- 
ion and building materials, as these have been discussed and have been illus- 
trated by the examples. The balustrade or railing always follows the incli- 
nation and the changes of the flights of stairs. This is aided by regarding 


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172 ARCHITECTURAL CCMPOSITION. 
each flight as a part by itself; for even with a considerable length, the 
different steps only appear as unimeortant architectural members; Ly their suc- 
cession they aid one in estimating size of the room and height of ascent, the 
landing affording a necessary rause for the eye.. The intersection of the 
flights and the inclined balustrade with the structural parts of the stair- 
way occassions difficulties. It is simples when the flight of steps is built 
free in the room and ends there, and the rleasing and yuiet impressicn thus 
troduced is attained in no other way (Figs.210b, 217a).: If the staircase is 
built against one wall, the subdivision of the latter usually follows the 
inclination of the stairs The wall surface is divided in janels and is al- 
‘SO animated Ly moulded joints or by horizontal tands and mouldings ending 
at the height of the story.: Smooth materials, capable of polish, and not eas- 
\ily injured by use, are especially appropriate therefor. If the flight must 
be carried along a series or piers or a colonnade which replaces the solid 
walls, it is advisable to treat the latter in accordance with its division 
into stories, disconnecting the strings and balustrades so far as possitle. 
we should proceed thus, if as in Fig.308, such free supports are required for 
supporting corridors or porticos which are frequently arranged around the open- 
ings for the staircase.’ Treatment of the forms is most difficult, when inter- 
mediate strings must be supported by piers or columns with or without inclined 
vaults connecting them.: 

when the stairs end at the height of the story, the upper portion of the 
stairway is.sometimes freely developed above (Fig. 240), or is sometimes sur- 
rounded by the corridors.: according to requirements, these are not only ar- 
ranged on one or two opposite sides (Fig. 290), but usually on even three or 
four sides of the room (Fig.311), and these not only serve for connecting sur- 
rounding rooms, but also have a very fine architectural effect.: They afford 
charming views in the stairway and of the persons moving thereon. ESpecial- 
ly in this upper rart, the stairway is frequently treated as a kind of cor- 
ridor and is then usually furnisbed with appropriate paintings and other orn- 
amentation. The notlest architectural effect to te produced by combination 
of stairway and entrance hall has been most successful in numerous modern build- 
ings, designed after older Italian models.: This is shown Ly the angerer Pal- 
ace in Vienna (Fig. 307) and Technical High School in Munich (Figs. 210a, 21Cb) 
also Grand Staircases of the Cpera Houses in Peris (Fiz.318), in Vienna, at 
Frankfort-o-l (Fig.314), etc. That a derivation of motives from the Italian 
cortile contributed thereto is shown ty the Grand Staircase in state hall of 
new Palace of Justice in Vienna (Figé.317, 317a) and others. 

Chapter 3. Desings of Courts.: 
eebh. General. 


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173 ARCHITECTURAL COMPCSITION, 

Like all other uncovered parts of the site, courts have the primary purpose 
of ensuring light and air to the buildings.: They further aim to arrange a 
connection of the parts of the building on the ground level.- This end is 
served by this area, usually uncovered, laid out, leveled and drained.: sac 
cording to location, they are distinguished as fore, unner or reer courts, 
and according to importance and purpose, as main or side courts, light or 
kitchen courts, courts of the offices, stable yards, etc.: The latter courts 
serve only for purposes of utility, chief:ly occuring in residences and farm 
buildings, therefore needing no discussion here or m,re than reference to their 
treatment later.: 

But the design of the former is required by the architectural organism of 
the work and forms an inseparable part of the entire building, frequently 
being even an internal room therein, when entirely or partially enclosed ky 
the building , and it is sometimes roofed This kind of court, which belongs 
to the entrance and passage rooms of the structure, remains to be described 
as supplement to those.. Its importance in architectural designing is self- 
evident, and this tecomes more so by a brief retrospect of the historical 
development of courts.- 

22é. Historical. 

The temples of the Egyptians were furnished with spacious courts, enclosed 
on two, three or four sides, sometimes by single or even by double porticos 
(Fig.218),. These externally closed fore-courts removed the temple proper and 
sanctuary from the view of the people, but gave place in Greece to the cpen 
temple precinct, access to which (Fig.219) was sometimes through a lodge with 
portico and magnificent portal, or a propylea. The court of a Greek house 
Ree ey eee fone py part of the building, of its life and activity. However 
Simple and cskeerice of the house, the interior must have been made rich and 
pleasing by iits splendid effects of lighting, by picturesque views in the 
courts, animated by ornamental shrubs and plashing water, and ty porticos 
with their splendid paintings and sculptures. The atrium and peristyle were 
usually small courts in Roman houses; several kinds may te distinguished, ac- 
cording to construction and arrangement, and they were furnished with a water 
tank, in which a refreshing fountain was placed when possible (Fig.220). No- 
ble courts were constructed in the baths of the Roman imperial period, partly 
as places for games, partly for other purposes, and they were furnished rich- 
ly! by Statues and art works.: These courts frequently ended in semicircular 
or segmental form and were generally enclosed by promenades or porticos, 

The:fore-court or atrium of the Early Christian basilica was usually surround- 
ed by a p,etico and at its center stoofi a fountain for atlutions before en- 
trance to the church.: The atrium also served as a burial place (Fig, 321).- 


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a ‘ ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

The mosques of the Arabs were also furnished with similar fare-courts,: with 
these picturesque desigss are included mediaeval cloisters. They were sur- 
rounded ty buildings with cloister aisles in the lower stories, behind which 
were the habls and other rooms of the monastery. One of the finest examples 
exists in the Monastery of Maulbronn (Fig.222); the cloister adjoins the north 
aisle of the church and is enclosed on the remaining sides by halls and other 
rooms of the monastery. But fortified courts of mediaeval fortresses and cas- 
tles appear otherwise, but belong to a different eukject, which cannot here 

be pursued further. 

but it is especially in the creations of the Renaissance, particularly in 
the courts of palaces and other prominent Italian buildings, where must be 
sought models for present use and for transformation of these elements of 
architecture. Consideration of a few typical examples a'‘will be useful in 
the following study of arrangement and treatment of courts,: 

a.: Arrangenent in General. 
27.‘ Location. : 

Courts are ore tag ip plan and ue tikes according to their purpose and to 
the conditions. eapurpose fixes the location before, within, or behind the 
building, then the formal treatment, and within * certain limits, their 
space dimensions.: The arrangement and treatment are different for a fore-court, 
from those of an inner-court; for a principal or state-court, or for a side 
or rear court.: With regard to the relation of the court to the rooms for com 
munication, in order to bring the staircase into convenient connection with © 
the court, the corridor or entrance hall should open towards the court, and 
access to it is to be made as easy as possible.: Side courts reyuire separate 
entrances.’ Otherwise the location of the court and its connection with the 
plan depend on the form of the building, and it will here be only so far treat- 
ed as required by a study of the design of courts. 

228, Ground Forn.: 

The rectangular plan is both simplest and most suitable. Yet, as in the 
following examples, polygonal, circular, elliptical, or other forms composed 
of straight lines sometimes occur. On irregular building sites, it is usual- 
ly best to give the court a regular form. (art. 235 and Fig. 323). The court 
is sometimes open on one or more sides, or bordered by promenades, and some- 
times is entirely enclosed by buildings (internal courts). The surrounding 
parts of the building are also variously treated, being sometipes in one, 
sometimes in several stories. The chief purpose of most courts, the possitil- 
ity of introducing abundant light and air, is naturally best fulfilled by 
having at least one side freely open for their admission.- In many kinds of 
buildings, as in hosputals and insane asylums, prisonm barracks, etc., no 


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175 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION, . 
other kind of court is permissible for sanitary reasons. 
£e9,° Dimensions, : 

Determination of its space dimensions is also of importance, especially 
in case of enclosed courts., If the buildings surrounding a court are very 
high and the court is not wide, sufficient light will not enter the lower 
rooms and the air stagnates and becomes impure in them. ‘We therefore first 
consider the ratio of height to the width and certain minimum limits of these 
dimensions, not exrressed in absolute numcers, tut fixed with reference to 
climate and form used. beneath the sunny sky of the South, shade and cool- 
ness are required, and in the inclement North, crotection from wind ond cold. 
Therefore much smaller dimensions suffice for the court in warm countries, 
than in cold regions, where it must te more open to the rays of the sun. It 
is generally assumed in Germany that the height of the building sround the 
court should Le about one-third the width of the court. This is only possi- 
tle in rare cases and is only necessary, when the entire extent and height 
of the court are easily to te seen at a glance. sven then the given ratio 
is only to be taken as an average one. For a court arrenged like « public 
square, serving for free entrance and surrounded Ly great monumental tuild- 
ings, requires a greater width than that given. Thus the magnificent Square 
court of the Louvre in Paris has for its side atout f-1/2 times the height 
of the lowest wing, built by Pierre Lescot under Francis I and henry IV.. 

Yet a width equal to twice the height suffices for the court, when the ob- 
server can take a position to see cerfectly and appreciate the entire archi- 
tecture of the court facades. but this ratio is seldom attainatle in inner 
enclosed courts. In Italy, where courts may be narrower, we find the width 
equalling or exceeding the height only in the grander designs. The propor- 
gion cf equal height and width appears to have teen intended in courts of 
some noted buildings of the Renaissance period. These are sometines square, 
sometimes rectangular, as in the teautiful courts of Giraud, Farnese, and 
Borghese Palaces in Rome, and that of Hospital d.° Incuratili in Genoa, while 
they are sometimes higher than wide, the elegant court of Cancellaria in kome 
having the ratio of about & to 7, and the court of Strozzi Palace in Florence 
that of about 8 to & But in most Italian courts, the width is only from 
2/4 to 1/2 the height, or even less.: 7 

4s for the atsolute dimensions of height, from observations in different 
acceptably lighted courts and from comyarison, in Germany an architecturally 
treated court with minimum sufficient lighting should have a clear width of 
not less than 29.5 ft.- (to 32.€ ft. with a height of at most 39.4 to 52.5 ft.- 
The eye oan here see but portion of the interior at a glance. ith so great 
a height, it is necsanery that light entering through glass roofs should in 


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172 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 
nowise to te obstructed ty the structure of the roof. 
£20. Section.- 

Fer courts enclosed by high Luildings, the arrangement in Fie. 7:2 is also 
employed for better introduction of light Ly muking the court Larger at the 
top. If the court ke rectangular, its ends may te higher than its sides; 
the given proportions may t«- approxinated in this way. 

vu. Enelosed Courts Partially surrounded by Euiidin,s. 
221. Fenced Courts. | 

Permanent enclosure of a square makes it a court, access is oct-iined througi. 
gateways, and within the enclosure or in direct connection therewith is the 
tuilding.: According to the mode of enclosure, these courts are cxpatle of 
the most varied treatment. where the court sajoins on open syuare or street, 
the enclosure consists of 4 wall with or without entrance gatewoys, ond where 
there is no wall, it has an enclosing fence of metal, either iron or tron, 
of monumental design. Fbiers and columns supporting vases, spheres, etc., 
are placed at suitable intervals to decorate the fence, and their forms must 
be suited to the architecture of the gateway. The portel and carrla.e entrance 
are sometimes treated like a triumphal arch or freyuentiy as deep pvateways 
with living rooms for the gate-keeper (Fig. 2&9). . 

Cecorations appropriate for oren squares, such as columns, otelisk:, statues 
cr prours, fountains, etc.,, are equally agoropriate for lurze courts of this 
kind,’ where several courts adjoin, merely an oven grille is generully cref- 
erable for separating them; the impression must be that cf a single court 
divided into several parts. For a separation, as weli as to enclose the court, 
instead of a solid wall or open grille, vorti®os ore arrsnged on cone or more 
Sides, especially on the front side and they are left oven on toth sides or 
are enclosed Ly an external wall and left open next the court. Courts erran.e- 
ed thus occur in many Luildings of antiquity and in recent structurss, the 
latter being attached to casinos, to exhibition tuildings with crosenades, 
etc, A most notable example of a large court surrounded ty itorticus is that 
of the National Gallery in berlin (Fiy.224). The temple-lise aprearance of 
the Luildins and of its entire surroundings is made esrecially vffictive Ly 
the design ot the court. Taken in this sense, architecturally trestsa ces— 
eteries should likewise Le considered as courts surrounded ty portico-ligze 
passages, walls against which monuments are built, ete. 

e222, Fore-Courts.: : 

But courts are not usualiy enclosea on all sides Ly tere fences, buildings 
adjoin them on one cr mcre sides.’ This is the freyuent arrenzement found 
in palaces, notlemen's seats, etc., where instrad of placing the aoin Luild- 
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. ono te baé weet vid al eontte? 4 gatero? sawbs isvo eda 46 solv 6 8h, GE 


ick 
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eS. Es (lisiwixe at iat sbebsancids ¥d diebia an Jad play o agittog 
ah; . gies e to india odd mi aytied ads to 31eq towel S#9, O35 coats bine asitose 
Sas $2 dksgspo ytto£ ons Leas anf ade qtst ys béasawd Yaa sao doidn es awoh 


Pen sscevai wal onad sone) xi bounise: toe oe ee — sgn tied “ eae 


yas ‘ain ‘eiesines ads ean’ sentivane ‘pinto Clad dnott ; 
; wa0lshy, iy ies ago th tie’ Séan irene. 19 #,0in dud SSE BET -2b608 3 od os | 
abie 3939 wd ro) bavolony ek si eitde \gas,o3 2Oytt .asbie diod so 11s ole 
ashiaed Jepnt tins Fete t, to aetiees al, BOORT 0g 19 avilityi . silew e 


3 aa evieevasua is tuvea gM Ligtts +18 yl beouborg af ,yiwedes agol eda io bas. eiy. 


ans 


177 ; ARCHITECTURaL COMPOSITION. 
front buildings sometimes form the enclosure next the street or the passage 
to the facade, Fig.326&, tut win,s or suitordinate Luildings generally enclose 
the court on both sides, Figs. 327,252, while it is enclosed on the other side 
ty walls, -.igrilles or porticos, In designs of larger Luildines, Lesides 
the principal court, several lesser courts are provided, mostly for servant's 
use. The advantages of this design, such as quiet location, distinguished 
external appearance of the principal Luilding, etc., are evident. 

4A still greater neizhtening of effect, peculiar to some French calaces of 
the end of the 1éth century, is produced ty arrangin: several successive courts, 
flanked Ly buildings on toth sides, widest next the syuare or the street, 
and diminishing in width towards center of main tuildin,. The court of Pal- 
ace of Versailles is executed thus with an extremely dignified and Lesutiful 
effect (Fig.22@), however monotonous its architecture may te in other rescects. 
To the Chateau of Louis KIV(byMansart), we pass through a erent fore-court 
enclosed ty a rich grille, at the sides being two Luildines orizinelly intend- 
ed for ministers (Court of Ministers). A second court succeeds (Ccurt of 
Princes), then a third and still narrower court, which wain leads to the last 
and smallest court(Court of the King), next which were placed the sleeping 
apartments of the King. 

eac.' Rear Courts. 

suite a different character, more attractive if less pretentious, is tro 
duced ty having the court extend Lehind the principal Luilding, instead of 
before it.: we first consider thae arrangement introduced in Italien villa 
architecture, especially in Florence and Home, where the court is combined 
with gardens. This is illustratea ty the Ville altani.(Fih.199) snother 
Leautiful example is the court of Pitti Palace (Fig.22&). In the tackzround 
is placed the entrance to a more elevated warden, in a ygrotbo-like niche icin, 
a fountain.: The ascent to the garden is Ly means of steps windinz sround 
the . *srotto in guadrant plan; in the middle is a landing, frem «hich anoth- 
er straightflight leads to the top. «5 court design of highest eiczance is 
at the charming Villa Pia in the Vatican. Fig. 230 is its pound clan: Figy 
223 is a view of the oval court forming a terrace. In the reer and at one 
end of the smaller axis is the Villa, in front and ct the other ena teing 2 
portico opening along its sides Ly colonnades. This is externally in two 
stories and rises from the lower part of the design in the middle of a Lasin, 
down to which one may descend Ly ramps from two small and lofty cortals fians- 
ing the terrace court. Courts of sost palaces in Genoa have lov Luildings 
at the rear or oren directly intc gardens, which enrich the courts Ly scec- 
ial decorations and are also usually raised higher than the level of the court, 
theret.y affording oppurtunity for decoratin, the rear of the court by terrac- 


| 


i. spt aa bins. Rog ‘ates - 
gi | gens dnsvbe: dove ox iinet of Tia? bade 
EHC bese LD 20 betwevepad desolord see ° 
;  Oondire% Atin seal ae? 
7 | : ‘att. enahitio’ Unile ot fave Sivoo to sais aide at 
5. ee sont ineynne:drod. yiivies seed? bas Semcquy lyteey tot eins ‘nocu ted 
sivas wig to mpiade vit vdii ous yod? .tetiol ait tobiesas £12 v on ey ae 
| As to cage wid. te, towwdd soot wisi-as as sotebienos ote bes otuod emp 
| nm Ro her 2. eds Adie Sefoeanes es ww foo wiv ofr: ris? seco vened 
mx, ‘4s beonvovwe Ylickdiey igi wacis co yatiwos beons't tot Weve Ji so tbagery 
* “at ai :eweelone an aueoe yiteido sosistoy bes .eelliny fellew .ecdthlind 
Bebia wr0n 3h owd .9mo batons -bmedxe “llawes yodd etiwoo oecav00 b” ad 
ical Aeiuse sklf .aoitudtl edd ddiw dokteennce «wx? of 2s 08 yiode done ak 
iss ee died aNerOE insigs a betispos bus osemilo efi ys besove? y! e 
eighth Li: tige fist) at wise. 


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e. ates gina eda a0 2a: abies iga0*2s-$iT- sw baw (si osnt vidoe as; gbawk een 
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ass ~~ —. deitsgas bas done! evoyoisns oii ATES 228 eiithyliste 
5 i aRosaNS bets eiteuiio sive oc bes tibem 
i  Moiteve [3 ei? 083 
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aha tO-a thy to Eshwse La teres ajididas ylisteae, bas seixete ojnt soietvib 
a ee ed qa besoeineo avaltesge toto dose evods fea stsb70 taztottib To adan 
q ste or woktess 4 ite -siada .dienegoette me ,eedots yi to wowdeijsyne icinosé 
oS wistenetel Bae adhe “Be Letomeb need ybneris eed path fiod end to toltwue 
“4 : oS 6 sued ¢f fesrau q20dR saoigid odd at eeitelis, 10 
4 aks soons yas thd Sotewey od? webeows evad eottose towol atid alidw , 200%. 
Rie “Clove towel Yo eecundarh Isize edt mind-set of .wauo tatit edi eT wwoae 


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= eek wound: [dae iptngetzed dgis ashsanelon eonie .ysluoitiibd ence asexso 
“a rweareetmenet seed ote ranehntnenete abi nev somborg onpivas edd 


oe ‘+F ie 


176 - ARCHITECTURAL COKPOSITION. 
ed slopes and fountains. ‘there conditions of the ground sermit, one should 
never fail to realize such advantages.- 
c,: Enclosed Uncovered or Glazed Courts. 
224, Courts with Porticos. 

In thie kind of court must be clearly retained \ the distinction in art. 225 
between courts for useful gurposes and those serving Loth convenience and 
luxury. we will consider the latter. They are like the atrium of the anti- 
uue house and ere considered as an inner room thereof, 1f the rooms of the 
touse ocen freely into the covrt ar are connected with this ty cortices sur- 
rounding it. ‘hile tor fenced courts, or trose tut partially surrounced Ly 
Luildings, walls, grilles, and porticos chiefly occur as enclosures; in in- 
ternal and covered courts, they usually extend around one, two ir more sides 
in each story so as to form a connection with the interior, This desien was 
especially j ae Ly the climate and acyuired « tycical iwcortere.. 2s a core 
tile in Italian Luildings.: 

Fa 9 aboant Plan, 

Its addition to the zround plan gives rise to very different forms of clans, 
Fiys, 231.t0337, which escecially differ in their connection with entrance, 
and in the location of entrance, entrance hall and stairway. The stxircase 
sometimes commences directly in the entrance hall tefore the court; it sone- 
times leads directly into it, end may lie at one side or on the rain «xis 
ot the rear of the plan, etc. In the last case, it telons «s much to the 
court as to the adjacent parts of the kuilding, and it is -enerally arranged 
in two branches in the tuildings of the Lest Renaissance period «nd in later 
examples.: These Itulian models were imitated in many courts of th: Renais- 
samce period in German free imperial cities, connected with the south commer- 
Cially(Figs. 224. 385).: Like analogous French and cnglish examcles, these were 
modified to suit climate and customs. 

226.: The Elevation.’ 

The elevetion of this court with porticos und galleries corres:onds to the 
division into stories and generally exhibits severs] storics of ciers or col- 
umns of different orders set above each other, sometines connected ty hor- 
izontal entaLlatures or by arches, an arrangement, «hose ucplication to the 
exterior of the tuilding has already been descrilid in art. 12, Logeias 
or galleries in the hizhest story usually have @ colonn.de with kcrizonrtal 
roof, while the lower stories have arcades, The reverce arrangement also 
occurs.’ In the first cuse, to re:tain the axial distances of lower story 
causes some difficuity, since colonnades with horizontal ente:l:tures lise 
the antiyue produce very wide intercolumimtions. To avoid this defect, 
the colonnade sometimes extends through the two upper stories. ‘his does 


Vv Cee bene ot a aidunl Weed awhys ton 
to who teqav edz Yo moitreqotg es soln — ;angtasd dyeoo al been 64 oF Uf 
sa a edd x02 atl ‘Yo Jniog énedaib s dows etivyet aot var vate: 
"leo weant ai tenintJo ed eves fscals aa3 
to su09 edt ak an _bavod yilanoiasooe af"6SS .4i% oi sneze yeti ade tud 
-. ante eiviq sbeor: ‘towol edi 06 Stetiw weed a1 wid siish.A JC yieteenol: 3 
® “pebsvid gfiied aleviwins. skodd ay toca $e4Qu" ‘eit lo @tsis beqnde-eaor Pe 
i = asad i Lew webaiw sacl ayniasgs odd @bivindss qle1s doide ,zamuioo wvonete 
ie  (hewitoy 9% aytideyO Tew wid .qrnostT si yiletovyes , .qinonass vtom LEG: 
| seg ae TI09 anos dun sui Loo're Ind abix atin begege o2¢ anngion edt bas hebiv iba 
gt  tieboow wentiders vaose edd to bootent fui. -nodaivib [eise tewol off oF gat 
re bedtoqaia eve intoo. gitiseiorta yigionte Asie aei/3 ev ds deer fu wis eaeud 
tod aioe bas vo laqwionie i 40%4 yleritae a. 6i IomsyiatTs aid? ..etediad 
as _ s@asei meboow to 4n701 toligil wad so beast ai is sonia gti Leet otseds 23 
E s Saded?., Lowsk Hauotig wit dc wooltis3 ‘gd behakorta efiwao noisdem Of 9YSA ox 
f as fats erptet- sebsgotey Yie¥ om “aviues dsua fis -beeclots giizs Be1sG7" Way 
si hoo Yo pas eewigliee ,z0eutude ,eniadauot ‘tegnousd7to .eieeautoe fo notdaae 
o. SO Dae, eosen “gasbain tuodsie ‘ foorged ‘psttail e ni St qeve saoticio;sb bere 
 yomday bas 41090 gis odai Tied edavting “oid gost weiv 6 afoot jecol 36 Yee 
13 2 <a % gi fh gieod qi adute ta ynsnento: Asie ‘eid3 yartnely ud ewsotg ofd 


7, opine iam ‘odd hahaa eike edd nO 9a8* <0: SWeil w aise sicia s 
‘ switwor seciegl mn ak botsing aoblse seviton wT 


efwoo bees ih  .TSS 

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f - gaeoet daom edd oF wok beyolume eels Yeu wtea aud .betevconu yliuioed 
baiv o2 beecaxs yiim dene tz oli ling qd benavoriwe adiwoo ge | bofweg 
aie - aw0o aweitom wepleo’ xi’ env yiemibio 0? bytine Lise a0 fon om Asiiese 0as 

os dea som. ai vaso old uh @o «taissinetes © otk! £70 7s00 sot yblsioeqes .selt? 
i “y.g09 ads pebmuorwme doidw, Seltelias 10 ayy! Avge giotesedT anol yet %9 
— gadg ore, (88 tm) buaolon, yltaoa rodel sxe .aghiblind somnaaieaes sable to 
a bese ll boties atiwollod aig to sdtow etd at belsiao; ievijae taonin Stew 
ot hows aoe anelq. aiedd at benubowtai ete¥ allied eonatsie tO 2 1ob.2T09 
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a ian bas a9iduteoeb: asiois 8 aedt evi, of bas .ewigetiiow indtedxe 
Aare ae abies ad eavuod lo Swe edd ae Bsa] Ye eid? .moiesetqss Ox 
18% nets ve daeTy of3 ered doktn (038 i led ni gould Isyod. bid 
ET get ee 2h ae .fieeseetz joud - 

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gy eett gasop ai belJnoe 2 aod, wed ava ,avinasts Inoitidowd Ele af aasigotg td 
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Je Seek be: 1 Aare pi ae vate P 7 


179 aKCHITECTURAL CCHEOSITION. 
not a give a truthful impression of the internal ‘arrangement and is scarce- 
ly to te used in court designs, since the proportion of the urrer order of 
columns then require such a distant point of view for the otserver, that it 
can elmost never te oLtained in inner courts. - 

but the arrangement in Fig. 228 is occasionally found, as in the court of 
sionastery St. k.della Pace 1n Rome, where on the lower “rcade pliers stend 
the cross-shaped riers of the upper story, their intervals Leing divided ty 
slender columns, which serely subdivide the Ocvenings like window mullions, 
otill more ccoumonly, esrecially in Tuscany, the ugrer ovenings are entirely 
undivided and the columns ere spaced with vide intercolum nations corresroane- 
ing tc the lower axial division; Lut instead of the stone architreve, wooden 
beams ere placed abk,we them with strongly crojectin, cornices supported Ly 
refters.: This arrangement is om entirely proper structure] one and satisfic: 
esthetic feeling, since 1t is Lused on the lighter torms of wooden teanis. 

ne heve to mehtion ccurts surrounded Ly porticos st the ground level, thei 


Upcer stories .Lelne enclosed, all such courts are Very Areoroeriet: -tor-res. + --- 


ception of monuments, ornamental fountains, statues, scul: tures, and of col- 
ored decorations even if in a limited degree, Without abundant MEens, we’ 
way at leost create » view from the entrance hall into the court, and enhance 
the cicture Ly planting this with ornamental shruts, Ly designin, « fountain 
cr a niche with a figure or Vase, on the axis throuzh the entrance, which 
2re motives seldom omitted in an Italian house. 

co?,° Glazed Courts. : 

To accord with their crimary burcoss, courts shall Le freely ocen ana cue 
pecislly uncovered. Thus sere they alone employed down to the most recent 
period.’ Yct courts surrounded by walleries, ir const intly exposed to wind 
end weather, are not as well suited tor ordinary use in colder nothern coun- 
tries, especially for comfort sina ostentation, ss is the case in warmer scuti- 
ern regions. Therefore open loggi«s or salleriets,which surrounded tke court.: 
of older kenaissance Luildings, were later mostly enclosed (art.1€7), 2nd thes 
were almost entired : omitted in the works of the following ceriod. Glazed 
corridors or entrance halls were introduced in their place. iden asarned to 
treat courts enclosed on all sides without porticos ind gell-riecs, lise the 
external urchitecture, and to ,ive then a richer decoruticn and characterist- 
ic expression. This apreers in the court of Louvre in Paris, the court of 
Old Royal Fluce in Berlin, etc., which have the yreater area reuuired for 
suck treatment, . 

23&. Glass-Rooted Courts, 

by crogress in all technical tranches, men have been enabled in recent tite, 

to entirely cover large sized courts with IFOR wy and glass, effect- 


‘ jae gener plcaaeaieniios tiikiace ede cd endwhak aor’ nda entbenaiie' dtd 
+ @hinwew ca sotseliiasY -.siyti yrsaeeoen edt devise asiblivd edi te stmeq tae 
,too7 bas eoble tiedé mi againeqe fywoidt asusos hetoorwseealk ai betes ¥te 

tms gattoot ofl -.epdeswsqqs ytidsed yi bobis ylisixeies seaiéenoa ax ti sud 


ae yetaequooe ed§ sot Sietac’ tesn01% sosberg ylse fen elsuces dont te yikeoe 
i _ | yakwiew eduated fe gone ,begevieoas 61 of foun selsidudy bios ae 6 Jae vibs | ite 
ae Go evel yatouber .emewasin ylotiine sectls alten lattesus 6 gailoos puts 
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juodjin .dneadestd « dove bas eosetiocmi ae diod sititliud faece2 ston ts. 
ohare visiesixetaqs oben ed uso yedt dedy ,esoqusy alsa sieds of snesixteb, 
ha ,beitey soasgeinne’ oct ‘to bas ysinpigtna to angieed elon ead oF 
vasa ait ylistinease 6% Eeict to iseateout eds bare azinegro Law sqrits eT 
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a sha thet? ode sow Yo wrotaan smeay Yo epsidecsen rot .wescqug oi ideg % “30% 
iy Se a fetod asoiiata qwalles ,aeollie Jedq Tha S nt souros yLlisiovare al 
ae yi "a (Bev Yio — eviseleige, ,cessod swe fl opls (Seeneuums to asos iq 
" ae ) at toa ‘,o%@ ,ayarbiind fogies af efeneupes3 | noth 
a : me want sey  egminel (ot od? dalayriteia of isd eead o& 
a les otdtedies fae wee Gone oe Heqs .SwtO beteot~cosia ofT 4 
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on do wwdoetifow aff er: redos “atid @use edi asd ytinvew doide ,enely 2. 
Bes? dadiedges i Seu af ase esesita 
a ‘heat vie n Athe fled » eddl ,imdon wole wo odnta .iavitest ed® -.J 
i. Peeves at ao .ytibibed ah Yo faenteegs featedat as ge bows’ yilest aud? bas 
‘yiived af *tedvesiol" Tezod seueld af (TSS .42T) extenbal bax Sta to eueant 
<indd. ad (o°TS.git) footed tgbt Isoiatoe? yin oune ods at fenoats: , (389.447) 
ed? diiw omtdacs aedg sxg9@ eff to seiteling bas aoo.tiog ait gtedaes sot 
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| oberon. twied. ,acivmoiauames 1) eaoot etl besesty exis bas old iind. ade Qe 
92 mets, wednwiw to bald 5 as seve to aelis a¢ edale elduma ,edisac yu oe 
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1£0 3 akCeITeCTURAL COMPOSITION, : 

ively protecting them from injuries ty the weather, and also supplying adjac- 
ent parts of the Luilding with the necessary light.: Ventilation is usually 
effected in glass-roofed courts through openings in their sides and roof, 
tut it is sometimes materially aided ty heating apparatus.- Ine roofing and 
“warming of inner courts not only produce greater @onfort for the occupants, 
an advantage in cold countries not to Le underrated, since alternate warminz 
and cooling of external walls almost entirely dissarears, reducing loss of 
heat to a minimus, but heating of the internal rooms cf the Luilding is made 
éasier and relatively cheaper.: It has thus become possitle to yive courts 
of more recent buildings toth an importance and such a treatment, without 
detriment to their main furpose, that they may te made approximately equal 
to the noble designs of antiquity and of the Renaissance period. 

The structural organism and the treatment of forus are essentially the same 
as in those models, and the portico has particularly cowe into use. Differ- 
ences in arrangement and treatment are produced ty the varied purroses of 
our courts.- Those courts are preferable found in iuildings intended to ful- 
fil the requirements of the modern era for purposes of trade and business, 
for public purposes, for assemblage of great numters of men, etc. Their use 
is especially common in Lanks, post offices, railway stations, hotels, and 
places of amusement; also in court houses, legislative Luildin.is, city halls, 
and frequently in schocl tuildings, ete.: 

we have here to distinguish the following:- 

Be. The glass-roofed court, open to common use and accessible by 
carrieges as in some hotels (Fig. 28); it then forms an enclosed pyblic squere 
@ place, which usually has the same character as the architecture of the 
streets and is paved or asphalted.- 

t.: The festival, state or show court, like « hall with a sky light, 
and thus really used as an internal apartment of the building, as in dustricn 
Kuseum of Art and Industry (Fi¢.227) in Vienna, hotel "Kaiserhof" in Serlin 
(Fig.238), arsenal in the same city, Technical high School (Fic.21%¢) in Chir- 
lottenterg. The porticos and galleries of the court then combine vith the 
entrance hall and stairway, are designed in harmony with internal treatment 
of the tuilding, and are treated like rooms for communication, being decorat- 
ed Ly mosaics, wartle slabs or tiles or even as a kind of winter zarden. If 
the staircase is built free in the court, (Fig.317) it tay te designated as 
a stair-court, 

é.: Like market and tusiness halls, the court may serve as a Lazear and be 


8 maticome Gaemeeti Te ‘ 
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eves to aunt ad ea ,bejsert glamibnogueries 9! bas: Lied aolgisidng Das 
4 . ta lieg yd bebawotme af twoo edd orodw ,(0b9 2S 8424) atied at yteregi. — 
4 oe : atasaiu ye dnedsiee Aliw itt inoingemos .2ei30te wg .oag ody ai. set 
a i Iw09 oss Yo sate batiery stiine odd erinpet ylietene, avesclo ows Jag. 942 ;,.: 
_ fdbiw asi oF pice se Too ,tigied ederebos jut itie erode bawoig etd -ad. y iow, 
4 cc “yyiose tegen biidd 19 trodea od? sebuloni sxit i091 sasiz edT-. _ Btgaed, OMA. 
4 digded ont, Al ‘ptiyquooo actt avaso aistaso ai ti inevety tog ayo aide Jud: 
; q ; ~nkogbs te esontwe toot ed? evods basynie 18 od gna w0Tg tee gast,-sdd Fo, 
2 eeitois tewol seods , en yiacb qymi bas wiisae yaolel siep. 5 , Bigtbo | tnd 905.; | 
gheds dud .aidzarisys b+ loot-sealy as viewaw ,rceovtug 2eonigud 101 Heey ete, 
“ata? eeitellsy o¥id évabsence bans etwas digil as svise (lows solioge i299t. 
Pe : as lovet bavet, giv #o asobittoe edt exiltiv of auriseace eldiagog J}, 2¢a00 
e wen edd eeixesga wagu otal ysioubotial seeds to ¢15q & T2vO.,88091 bo iHVOD: 
Ds ayfdblivi eesniesi si bawot o1s eelgqusze «iisjon qaseé 128. bas Jdgil betinp, 
neuen Pmwoo io gaodt se .elied fwoo sastioqal tadsO -bolieg- otebod odd Fy, 
_ @F eoaisezoa .ono os agaideace ynoled ,.0Je ,wlled ydio ,segitio teeg: .8¢, 
tes at spoken gtisaotines eiolayisve ,evoie besoitnen amtol. sd7 Io setvons, 
cs bP. | | .€10T bag aotsoutience ,tnenesi6 11s adj ys 9909. 
a a ‘ sees es ea 2 | lich eywi to eagtaei =. t9dqnd0 
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te. 


alia . cae ai yititoo ban aeiluw yo beaolods 500% ismxedai o_te ft yay 
ebb: ad? te soisiwo laitneassnet wo wusoutie esa iyes 6 sao? if teddadw 
fs! aero ere anoianvaib cusaibiostixe to esodd ulieinegse ,alied yosd .get- | 
” sag fatege;, YO! evive vady noth Yitimayee ," “giied" se betaagiae’ yitetid 
a fed of2 .seu oseving bak oildvg tT ageidlind sdaeatsomy its ulssew al .2@. 
q : mw cial fotene, 101 s007 6 Be geaiteace .eeoisneaib axel to teis@t, aise euu||o 
(ast ao wuotiaiv to elorto wy! @ oF Semsgo saousiega eisdg 8 as ask tteass. 
_ daguods taal ad? es neiebianon oj [lin Lied ed? exmtetedt .eaciasooo [o7_ 
, pate rets aids at beaingnes smoot eds 16 Jansi eit som 
atiel to aazod fcoteyt Ss 


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mers) pr ae osm 7 : thou ilas pT apoio liad 
: Bist is : | wasoiliacd sup lita ~ ORS 

i esi hisiekdae alqaia to yoiblins badagaole adit 
* } eaioed etd? eoiliesd avpisas edd ai gonadteq 
Sate ai soiite: fr .BbC y esa! adj ai alisd avoxeaua nol bas ,alesbe 
- yoru nan rey 1 to m centpatnneet 4 aont © wah as ioe os be 


ies — * 


1€1 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

surrounded ty shops, vaults and warehouses; or it may le used as an exchange 
and exhibition hall and Le correspondim ly treated, as in kouse of architect's 
society in berlin (Figs. 229,240), wkere the court is surrounded Ly galler- 
ies in the two upper stories, communicating with adjucent spartrents, 

The last two classes generally require the entire yround ores of the court 
only in the ground story with Lut moderate height, corresconaing to its width 
and length. The glass reoft then includes the second cr third uoper story, 
but this docs not crevent it in certain cases from occupying the intire heieht, 
or the zlass roof proper gay te arranged aLove the roof surfaces of edjoin- 
ing tuildings.: here Lelong smaller and lerger desizns, whose lower stories 
are used for tusiness purrcoses, usually as glass-rocfed acartzents, tut their 
uoper stories merely serve as light wourts and sometiges hrve xalleries. This 
wskes it possible sometises to utilize the corridors on the ~round level as 
covered rooms, over a pert of these introducing into uccer stories the re 
qyired light and air.: many notaLle examples are found in iusiness tuildinzs 
cr the modern period. Cther important court halls, as those of court hous- 
es, post offices, city halls, etc., kelong sometimes to one, sometinzes to 
enotker cf the forms mentioned aiove, everywhere manifesting voriety in rur- 
pose Ly the arrangement, construction and fora, 

Chapter 4. LDesizns of Large hells. 
239,° General, 

pvery large internal room enclosed Ly walls and Celiing is termed a hall, 
whether it forms a separate structure or is,essential rortion of the Luild- 
ing. kany halls, especially those of extraordinary digensions, sre often 
briefly designated as "Halls", especially when they serve for general purcos- 
es. In nearly all prominent Luildings for public and private use, the hall 
occurs with greater or less dimensions, sometines as a rocxz for echeral use, 
sonetines as a state apartment opened to a larger circle of visitors on fes- 
tal occasions. Therefore the hall will te considered as the last, though 
not the least of the rooms comprised in this Division. 

a. Typical Forms of Halls. 

according to the special surrose they are to serve, halls exhilit great 
diversity in detail and in ,eneral in their forms. but certain principal 
Kinds may te distinguished, ana their types may ever Le found in the noble 
buildings of antiuuity., 

£40.- antigue basilicas, 

The elongated Luilding of simple rectangular plan first acquired great ia- 
portance in the antique tasilica, This tecame the motive for churches, cath- 
edrals, and for numerous halls, in the later periods. The tesilica is refer- 
ed to Grecian origin; from descriptions of royal halls at athens and in oth- 


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12, aRCHITaCTURaL COMPOSITION. 

er Cities of Greece Ly Grecian writers, we may assume a certain similarity 
of their design, to the Roman Lasilicas. The name basilica was first aprlied 
by the Romans to covered halls adjcining the Forums, which served for neet- 
ings of merchants, for sittings of courts of justice, and for putlic busi- 
ness of all kinds. Yet Roman basilicas sre not Luilt after a generally ac- 
cepted model, any more than any other kind of Luildings. The resains of ba- 
gan Lasilicas vary from the rules given for them Ly Vitruvius. 

owever it may have teen with details of the design, it now agppesrs to te 
settled that the Roman Lasilica was a rectangular hall, crotatly with clos- 
ed sides, and usually with such a width that to cover it, it was divided Ly 
rows of cclumns or riers into three or five aisles. The middle aisle then 
was considerably wider than the side aisles (three tines their width secord- 
ing to Vitruvius), and was almost always higher, so that a high side lieht 
could te introduced into the center aisle over roofs of side aisles. Galler- 
les were usually arranged over side aisles, the upper columns being lower 
and with high balustrades next the center aisle.- On the main axis and usual- 
ly at one end, though sometimes on the side, was a raised space enclosed Ly 
balustrades, the tritunal, which usually took the form of a circular or poly- 
g0n2l niche. subordinate rooms frequently adjoined this. The basilica was 
kenerally covered by a horizontal ceiling, Lut was also vaulted, 

The Basilica Julis in Rome was of large dimensions (Fig. 241) and may te 
taken as a tyce of the true commercial Lasilica, Lut the basilica of Constan- 
tine in Kome (Fig. 342) is to Le considered as the type of an antique state 
hall.- The former is characterized ky the omission of a tribunal niche and 
ky the existence of numerous subordinate rooms along the longer side of this 
five-aisied basilica with piers. erthy of note in the clan of the Roman 
basilica is es¢ecially the extending of side aisles sround all four sides. 

It is evident that the basilica Julia could have had only a horizontal csil- 
ing. Not less charecteristic is the Basilica of Constantine, whose center 
aisle is covered ty a colossal groin vault of &2 ft. span, divided into thre 
bays, the side aisles Leing covered ky three tunnel vaults at right anzles 
to the axis, Their abutments recieve the thrust of the groin vaults; telow 
their springing points were arranged projecting columns. 

£41. Halls of Baths. 

Next to antiaue tasilicas are the magnificent halls of the Koman Lathes, 
which have the same expression as the former. The seme arrangement of the 
former. The saze arrangement of the Basilica of Constantine is found in 
baths of Caracalla and in those of Diocletian in Rome. Fig. 221 represents 
the principal hall, just as noble in effect as appropriate in construction. 
This makes possitle vaulting instead of a wooden ceiling, securing a aecid- 


4a Petr bere: 


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: ‘giled to ante? to asesau te Eadingooe od (ot ‘patsiteiluoey felts ati af aa 
i fe rey i ewioeihom sa luces al 

ae 298 sono is a aot even astlvees ‘edd tonebis beailatines al 


2 “# . ar 


183 ARCHITECTUR«aL COMPOSITIGN. 
ed ‘advance in architectural treatment.: The vaults of middle aisle rose so 
high atove the side aisles, that as shown ty the illustration, the hall was 
lighted Ly high side lights atove side aisles. 

242.. House Basilicas and halls. 

These examples show that the Romans knew how to develop the Lasilica and 
transform it into a state hall. as such, not only in palaces for monarchs, 
tut also in private houses for festal gatherings. ‘Some data on designs of 
Roman halls are given ty Vitruvius, who distinguishes in dining and other 
halls Le tween Corinthian, or halls with four columns, and fyetian kallis, 
for he describes the former as having a vaulted ceiling over sigcle colon- 
nedes, Lut gives to the latter two colonnades above each other, covering thei. 
Ly an ornamental coffered ceiling with windows Letween the urper cclumns.: 

In regard to halls for paintings, it is only stated that like halls for sceah- 
ing, they were larger, Halls for speaking in gymnasia were large cpen halls 
attached to colonnades and furnished with seats, so that ¢hiloschers could 
give instruction to or amuse an audience. 

£42, Theatres and amchitheaters. 

auite different from these halls, from antique house tasilices and commer-— 
cial kasilicas, were those mighty creations of the Greeks and Romans, the 
theatre and the odeion, the amphitheatre, the hippodrome, and the circus. 
although without roofs, or only covered by an awnine, they should not te ne- 
glected, since they are typical forms for our designs of halls, nearly relat- 
ang to them in purpose and form, and are also the architectural woras, where 
the circular building came into use in the most imposing manner. They dif- 
fer in arrangements due to their uses, so that sometimes semicircular or 
circular plans appear most suitable, sometimes oval or a more elongated plen. 
In veried and entirely enclosed rooms, the circular Luilding sometimes cro- 
duces a peculiar effect in noble works. 

c44, Wentralized buildings and Church Basilicas, 

A very remarkable transformation of this leading form occurred in Barly 
Christian art, especially in ecclesiastical architecture.’ From koman state 
Luildings and monuments of the later imperial period was derived the centra- 
lized Luildings in byzantium under the influences of oriental architecture, 
and in the nest were croduced the Lasilican churches, douttless ty trenafor:- 
ation of the pagan basilicas for Christian worship! 

Since we do not have to consider church architecture here, it will only 
be necessary to refer ,vhe centralized or Lasilican form of church, so far 
as in its chief peculiarities may be recognized elements of forms of halls 
in secular architecture, 

In centralized buildings, the veculiar ground form is at once ancarent , 


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184. akCHITECTERaL COMPOSITICH. 

and it is sometimes composed of eae rezular crolycon, sometimes is in form of 

a Greek cross with merely nave and transepts, or (Fig. 242) consists of a 
primary square with outer aisles and semicircular apses. The subordinate 
buildings in Fig. 242 are also noteworthy. The architectural treatment re- 
ceives extremely effective and characteristic expression Ly the sucerstruct- 
ure, manifested in varied grouping of the principal dome rising alove the 
whole, as well as in vaulting the aisles and corner tullidings in twe stories 
(Figs. £8, 2 to 88). 

The: arrangement of the tarly Christian Lasilica was at first like thet of 
the pagan basilica, but graduslly deviated more or less in construction and 
clan.: se may emphasize as essential changes and extensions architecturally, 
the prefixing of the atrius, the occurence of transepts with or without a 
dome over the intersection, the projection of the apse and the development 
of the raised choir, the later addition of towers, etc.: So far as the inter- 
ior is not vaulted, the ceiling has coffers, is ceiled, or the frame—work 
of the roof remains visible. 

24F,° mediszeval Halis. 

with this reference to eclestiastical architecture, it should not te said 
that forms of halls in secular architecture lacked separate developsent.: fs- 
pecially in the middle azes, the perfecting of vaulted construction exerted 
a great influence upon treatment of the hall in the gelace and in the monas~ 
tery, in the castle and in the city hall, even though wooden Leam ceilings 
ond visible roof trusses remained in use as before, both for covering very 
wide hells and for lower rooms, where vaulting did not seem advisable or nec- 
essary. | 

The growing cosmunity felt the continually increasing importance of city 
effairs, and of the ecclestiastical orders, end required new Luildings with 
xreat halls, which the masters of Gothic architecture knew how to adorn witk 
great beauty and elegance. New motives and charming art forms were produced 
in stone, wood, and bronzes, with no really new ideas in construction. Only 
the mode of lighting can be so designated, in halls of wide span. In case 
of vaulted ceilings, this was vy geans of large pointed windows, crowned by 
external gables, which intersected near the tep ot the vault. ‘sith wooden 
cellings the light was introduced through luthern windows, sometices Letween 
the visible trusses,, scmetices through sky lights in the wooden ceilin;, 
which was usually of semi-cylindrical form. The usual errangement of windows 
for low side light was in most common use, toth for vaulted halls and for 
these with wooden beam ceilines. 

<4€,° Halls in Renaissance and Kodern Periods, 
The architecture of the Rens issence is also inexhaustitly rich in this 


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asec, | eT LE ila a eifal Yo netweotlisee=) = 1 
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TGF ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 

respect, not only in fanciful crnamentation, tut also in refined develcoment 
of construction and forms of halls. They were indispensable to every pron- 
inent building; according to Palladio, "like putlic places, which serve for 
festivals, feasts, presentation of comedies, weddings, and similar amusements, 
they are therefore larger than the others; and must have that foru Lest suit— 
ed for many persons to comwfortatly occupy them and see the proceedinus", If 
this primarily means the hall, which " all well arranzed houses heve in their 
central and finest part," it no less relates to halls in the palace and the 
villa, as well as to well known large halls of Italian municipal iuildings 
and courts of justice, and to old city halls, commercial halls, pivasure hous- 
es, etc., in Germany and other countries. 

but the modern period makes the most extensive use of halls. For in every 
sphere of life, in the state and in the community, in art and science, in 
trede and travel, in the great world and in simple fanily life, the restless 
activity of civilization has created new errangenents and improvements and 
Caused new needs and views, exbodied in new works of architecture. The de- 
sign of halls is always of decisive importance. As in older sodels, designs 
of halls now produce the principal types of the basilican, and of the centra- 
lised building, the latter being subdivided into polygonal, circular, and 
cross forms. It remains to examine how these transmitted forus karacnize 
with the ain ana purpose of our tuildings. 

a. arrangement and Form of halls.- 
£47, Classification of Halls.. | 

To whatever kind of Luildings halls may te attached, they may be subdivi- 
ded into the following groups, according to the chief purposes they are to 
serve: ~ | 

I, Halls for the purpose of seeing and hearing well.: 
Tl.: Halls for assemblies, festivals, exhibitions, etc.- 
{Ii.: Halls best adapted to fulfil all these purposes, 

The arrangement and form df halls are therefore generally sulject to one 
or more of these requirements, and to the conditions of the protleax. The 
design of the second kind of hall admits of greatest freedom. and that of 
the first hassthe least; limitations also extend to halls of the third group. 
If a roon completely fulfils the requirements of good hearing and seeing, 
it will not generally be difficult to satisfy all other requirements of the 
design.. 

1: Limitations of Space and kain Para: 
248, acoustic and Cptic Center. 

an acoustic and optic center exists in halls intended for pood hearing and 

seeing. In halls for lectures ond addresses, it is indicated Ly the speak- 


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18é aRChITECTURAL COMPOSITICH, me 
ex "s desk; in concert and theatre halls, it is lceated in the’ crohestra, or 
on the stage near the foot-lizhte, In designing a hall, it is necessary to 
commence at its acoustic or optic center, and the clan or arranyement of the 
auditorium or seace for spectators are made afterwards. It is evident that 
an arrangement suitatie for the espace for hearers or spectators differs much 
from those suited for the acoustic or optic center, or for ths steve. Dis 
tinct perception of tones or of the object to te seen ty direct rays is only 
possible within a limited distance from the source of sound or location of 
the object.: These limits are therefore of supreme importance in alls of 
this xind. 

242. Limits of Good rearing. 

The limits of good hearing in the quiet open air have teen fixed Ly exper- 
iment. without further discussion we refer to Fig. 244, where these limits 
are graghically represented, assuming the speaker to te rlaced at C. The 
full line indicates the limit for good hearing in all directions irom the 
Speaker in accordance with the well known expericents ty Saunders; those of 
tenry do not materially differ. On the basis of those end sizilar results, 
Crth and also Favaro give the simple form of a circle of 121 ft. diameter 
drawn through points respectively distant 96.4 and 22.8 ft. from ihe point 
O, a8 a limiting line with eaual intensity of sound, Bven if only approx- 
imately correct, yet for our purpose this cirele is a sufficiently accurate 
representation of the lisit. 

although diffusion of sound is guite otherwise in an enclosed hell filled 
with people, than in the quiet open air, where the : observer is disturbed 
Ly no one, though the influences which result are partly Leneficial and pari- 
"ly injurious to distinctness of perceptions of tones, we nust accept these 
results for lack of other data. These are then the limits of good hearin:z, 
when the effect of the voice or the tone is not strengthened ity artificial 
means. when these are employed, the limits may be extended such further; 
but they are to Le made much less, if injurious effects of sound ure produced. : 

260.. Ground Form of Hall. 

ihe form of scace for the audience is derived from the preceding, togeth- 
er with other laws for diffusion of sound, The more closely this form ap- 
proximates to these distences and limits, within which the voice 2s heard 
in all directions with approasimately egual distinctness, the cetter will the 
room te adapted for good hearing, It follows that the most suitaile ground 
form for halls of this kind is that approximating a circle, after the model 
of the Grecian theatre, which is chiefly enclosed ty acirele, Starting fron 
this Lasis, the ground forms in Fiz. 346 were developed.- Beyond the limits 
of good hearing, the tones are no longer distinctly perceptible ty direct 


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187 ARCHITBECTURaL COMPCSITICN, 
rays and the form is determined in accordance with the influence of the en- 
closing surface of the room upon fiffusion of sound.: The same is tnue of 
the examples in Fig,.° 247. 

251. acoustic Niches. : 

In most intimate connection with the form of space for the audience is that 
of the locality of the source of sound.’ This purpose usually is served Ly 
@ particular space, freely open toward the audience, of a form adapted to 
give to the sound rays a certain impulse and a certain initial direction, 
at the same time strengthening ther. This may te termed the acoustic or sound 
niche. Such an extension of the room does not always occur, because the ac- 
Qustic center is located within the hal] itself; either since the addition 
of a sound niche is usually net oracticebie, the hall Leing not exclusively 
intended for the purpose of ,ood hearing; or for the mode in which it is to 
te used, a simple platform or a speaker's desa is more appropriate. 

262. Other Means for Good sffect of Tone. 

For better effects of tones, the enclosing surfaces of the room are to te 
so formed and so limited, that useless dispersion of sound waves into empty 
space is prevented, and their reflections may have a beneficial effect. All 
space unsuitatle or superflous for the purpose of hearing is injurious and 
is therefore to Le omitted in designing the hall, since sound waves would 
te uselessly dispersed; material and form of the surfaces of the ceiling are 
to be so chosen, that they may be made useful to the effect of sound (vibra- 
ting surfaces placed near the source of sound), and that reflected sounds 
may te neutralized, For this reasen, the most suitakle form for iecture halls 
.€ moderate size is a quadrant, descrited from the position C of the speak- 
er, instead of the rore common form of hall enclosed ty a semicircle; the 
»@ission of two circular sectors is therefore recommended, where seats are 
not desirable. Executed examples of both ground forms are given in Fig. 24. 
Yet in very large lecture halls, the angle at the center of the tirst ground 
form must Le materially greater; the angles of the circular sector must al- 
so be cut off parallel to the riddle axis. 

If the preceding principles are decisive in fixing limitations of space 
for halls of moderate extent, they are much more so in falls intended for 
great numbers of rersons, and which must therefore extend teyond the limits 
of distinct hearing.: If the sound niche is omitted, then by other artificial 
means (reflector, sounding wall, sounding Loard) uniform diffusion with in- 
tensification of sound near its origin are to te produced. To prevent echos, 
the use of non-reflecting materiels for the most distuat parts cf the room 
is to be recommended, as well os to avoid smooth surfaces, the arrangement 
of forue to disperse sound, recessming and rowading off angles of walls and 


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188.° ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION 
of ceiling, etc.: : 
253. Reyuirements for Good seeing.: 

The acoustic requirements of halls have so far been treated ky creference, 
and even if these have not been exhausted here and must te mentioned later, 
g00d acoustics is not alone decisive, but other requirements are now to be 
discussed.’ For in nearly all cases, a solution of the problem depends upon 
a happy combination of different properties required in a hall with reference 
to its purpose. The demand for distinct seeing is in many cases vo even pore- 
cede that for distinct hearing. For many halls ere intended only for the 
enjoyment and perception of the eye, and not for those of the ear{hippofrome, 
circus, panorama, ete.). If optical requirements have so far teen subordi- 
nated, this is because they are more simply satisfied than the accustic, though 
toth usually coincide. | 

The last is true with the limitation, that in a room where one sees well 
at all points, he generally hears equally well, though not always the reverse, 
For one may hear without seeing the source of sound, and with a suitable de- 
sign of the room, the reflected sound rays also add to the better effect of 
the sound. To be able to see an object, no obstacle can exist between it 
and the eye of the observer; the visual aray nust paces directly to the object. 
Even then optie reyuirements are nore easily fulfilled than accustic, The 
limit of distinct vision is more restricted than that of distinct hearing. 
It is usually given at 39.4 ft. from the object, or at 28.2 ° to 29.5 ft. 
where very clear vision is necessary, as in school roons. Yet it is usually 
not required to restrict limits of space to small dimensions, since many ©x- 
hibits are calculated for the use of opera glasses, and alsolutely distinct 
vision is not generally demanded by others. 

264, Diversity in Arrangement. 

In many halls for cublic assemblies, as in churches, it is entirely suffic- 
lent if but a limited visual angle is ocen to each person with a sossitility 
for him to conveniently sea the pulrit and the Spezker, The distance fron 
the eye may then be considerable. Therefore these halls generally have a 
rectangular nave; hearers are distrituted over the floor of the hall, and 
the speaker occucies a place more cr less elevated, since he can thereby te 
visible and be more easily understood et 2 greater distance.’ 

In lecture halls, legislative halls, etc. ,the reguirement of distinct vis- 
icn is scarcely less important than that of distinct hearing. For a large 
room, darially arranged seats are indispensable, since the eye can then te 
directed exactly on the okject; especially in halls for €xperinents, where 
the limiting distance cannot te made great. In rooms of moderate pceinaich and 
length, slightly curved or even straight seats are sufficient. The platform 
of the speaker is usually somewhat higher than the lowest of the usually as- 


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ee ‘levwd otgavoosal) sevieedo 1o tomer ed? to eye edd. 
egestas liste ni feessyterrs «3S 
ime or gongs to IeJ3xe To enotssdiasi eit beesd ems ecigioniig ge ihenesq edz tv 
F breee, sag isiton won ifiw om Sic - ‘oniiiuo wit yide dquoitis .alled iv envet bag bas 
Peake) quoi to alied figiw (are - “e272 pices bas gaiueed boay ‘tol i quos to alisd 
il phiat eacds asin bas {See pit) "eee yenors esa: dxd elaviseet eetiduepes 3% 1 
tend Lite | Ss bam .BeeOg NG axed {ig e¥ ovisd doide (TOS .4f3) TT qo te 
“ - sfadeeb steds: to atngneTiuge' setido to yisoont ylieire efidw .aede oveqnes 
. sgkaidylt 3% 
st ‘ebasawd ots. Agiw beseornos ylorsaisnt deou ef Lied edd to gaioelysl ent 
Base 7, “neoen gnidyteve besttepace af ytisdyil Isqwdésa us ust oe  molere fase dak 
i - whee sot elisa ,eaueaes Yo gnisagal eds sor Sun af bins fasd ybeotin and ym 
iy ere tedso. to bee eolianl to admom Yo sods ac Tiew es ,osurrididxe ino eacivoss 
. hn: yee gt jud ."deudbaad” sidz to ‘gisectow wez¢i ai beenvocie od (fiw wiles 
c ise svidetooed ed! bas ,leioltisae neds Yasttegai eased 22 sigit iewtea eiied 
aiemiakd gudaigtl ats Jo Isezegneazss et2 Ho abneqsh ilies oft So unialrab 


ie yino tna alled Yo sxe? 5a8 sqanngns sie vas sonesiint atojaat weiss em0e 
ered hadesg,we ol od etinp 


AG gsotaneaic bas enoisseqods 58 
ey, Leneosio geo on aver sods igre ban detin ,Jduked Yo oife1 od? sod a 
i usivievil sot eons eal 26 ‘foutte elicides ag mad’ .oiganoon O47 HO 
piss ad yse g] ‘saeco dens ai bext? ed glao ame aseiselet seri .si01 bawoty 


(ce Ce Se Aen in i 


st! ae oe = Ad uee wee 


, ore. $5, 4 
ie Fun % a ib! , 4 es re ha ae 


ERT ee Ah oes be ea he as tae Sols oes ms Oe ne HS . 


“wih ‘edn. O84: ,eetged aisziee 6 of eis tad coviisten yine soa Jadd leveceg at 


Vivier, of euisseisd vdyia one to 
an i¢ ‘, L ’ r stabbed a 


f 
—- a 


189 ARCKITSCTURAL COMPOSITICN. 
cending rows of seats. but for very accurate vision, the otject viewedmusi 
not te raised higher than the eye of ths observer on the lowest rcw of seats, 

In court rooms, the requirements of diatinct vision and heuring vary for 
different parts of the hall, especially for the various persons engaged in 
the court proceedings and for the public. In theatres,the entire stage must 
easily Le seen.: 

If these conditions primarily affect the internal arrangement of the hall, 
they likewise hove great influence on the arrangement and form of the -Luild— 
ing. Just as in untique theatres, the arrangement of steerly inclined rows 
of seats in halle is a characteristic elexent of the structural organisn, 
uvon which depend not only the optic, Lut also acoustic rrorertics of the 
root. The inclination of rows cf seats may not Le on a straight line at oleas- 
ure, cut in a curve, concave upwards, constructed to scale and in accordance 
with actual horizontal and vertical distances of acoustic or ortic center from 
the eye of the hearer or okserver (Isacoustic Curve). 

2,: arrangenent in Detail. 

Cn the preceding principles are based the limitations of extent of srace 
and the forrs of halls, although only in outline. but we will now contrast 
halls of Group I for good hearing and seeing (Fig. 245) with halls of Group 
If for assenblies, festivals, exhibitions, etc, (Fig. 242), and with those 
of Group III (Fig. 247), which serve for all these purposes, ana se will then 
compare them, while briefly treeting of other requirements of their design. 

2EE* Lighting. 

The lighting of the hall is most intimately connected vith the demands for 
distinct vision. So far as netural lighting is concerned, everything neces- 
sary has already been said in art.102; the ligrting of museums, halls for col- 
lections and exhibitions, as well os that of courts of justice and of other 
halls, will te discussed in later voluses of this “Kandbuch", but in weny 
halls natural light ie less important than artificial, and the decorative suk- 
division of the ceiling depends on the arrangerent of the lichting fixtures. 
some other factors influence the sa | in i end form of halls end only re- 
quire to be suegested here, 

2ebc. Froportions and visensions, 

a8 for the ratio of height, width, and length, these have no less influence 
on the acoustic, than on esthetic effect of the room. Fron diversity in 
ground form, these relations can only be fixed in each cass.‘ It sey be said 
in general that not only relative, tut also to a certain degree, «isowute di- 
mensions are of imcortunce.- Feight of the rooz should not te toc ereat, since 
an echo gight otherwise te sroduced (art. 100, rule @; very suitatie for larze 
halls). 


i ee, Ask bs ¢ Sesh oes 


HT Sate  gOPMboted: om sO i 

{fon a6 pers Bin eisou to svor T2 stoi toottence ods yd eatewsss 

daa a. af -moor'sdy te s1ot vawory. ade \eddbetedee setto bao aedota ui a 
qotte bewsot Ah: ._f4 .1 qtow Yo alied al .dvetts Oiteveos eff as beyasdo 
2m ib one yiiakder sway yen bausoe Lis #edd Oe ,o12seds oupheas oi¢ to Lobos of? 
ye arose at ta vldueq gates .beqgsie yiletensy om Ginse edt tee edd 63° Yisost 
| 6. Bf esc tie bagorty wid B $8044 gideusios od yea ¢dyied eff  verito dose 
Lane 4 pa, A ill} a S: RNA | .  gnaine edasebon 
yar: oaths ve Lheri 40 eiginas = TR 
aienké 4 bias Lobe to Lind sudeal ans i hie .benoiinas yoeot is: ea loun ee” ‘gobieed™ 
: : at vyideoaae sviteidiyel to aosiel at @abingeG Yo List bas. ‘esusitent wothjgtZ 
| ; ya Lie ai sisoc odd aa1o? taoiuyd oidarisios tefia *48 gniwol lar ‘gif .eamek? 
eee - Vapds'299073 sigayoooe aff Wt avons aiolteiat sitreds tasbaaty att te eno 
ie anon se3 basevod! svit suede abied Aside alized ai sc8is7 ersbscorT edt to Lied 
a 
h 


. sis bopapods aes 20 ,basaucts idghe wot bebastai~ HG5H0.) ‘ak (isn dvoflac han 
| . bese ques agiu ancitele: oiftageos ni evisooieb 31: ova. “.¢zelity teadgii oie 
a Sante Sc alfid bliud of eldieacy ti ovo yods 7 la bawety yndlic Jo sailed 03 
Feet ryt Wasudd singacs seo foide .aysa 16° nei dushirs ‘tigate. to oi qin” Yq ef? ao at? i 
ie cet oy bal tings yeeres ei ero svedw 268% Bivynegoot 4 a6 anoeteq vans 26 
By i lpeuee $e -nodeekaanaas toetibaé now ¢iv2 
é io ae at bas a> . a Fuoda to anoistoqoug eff aad (3h0 git) [ie#. seta: ai? 
baie! : t Bat. tuole ‘te nets aeely eventos ait tives et? gort bentgis eistiane 
4 sbwtg + bluow 22 '. twoie to pated sidetebiamen s23 bad T atid 
igus) muiweiov: ace soda goa #k oxen ,baned Yo stoeTie yrtdwveth 
fees wc dhacegnates aii oT (S55 ‘[yl@). elsiaetea biloa Yo bas aiet xeveoo. fé. 
Swe a aviwwliny, bas bas cifeedo1 to aliew ynigolone te satsovediew aebgoe OF 
» tot .giiobiad ens ‘gf bnBGT snot Yo toate ios0s teifes sit bediaces 64 OF 4S 
wy | Mes in) beasse203: fou et mise ory aeedT belli ylesoiqzoo 0 .visdeteboe . mac 
vi. en Yop ttcae ylietabianco Ayuodtie Lovebsoort of) Yo Lind. fivtast eat ud ¥ Lieate 
% ggllt © (ava) venegd eu" 22 oanin outs eadeed sat doluzevexe 8° 1% tated evolite 
Bes petite gon o4¢ Yo Liet-aguad gif .“eelsioi ci sate eail aeqoed vileutoars afind 
Yo Jivti atddt biogas gtasdxe osbad efi $e yiso {2S 239) géegiel ot Do 
eS ine was qe pit ms inant cates res of agacted fi swt ats yiiwsen Joatsiel= 
es . 182% 2 8 ow diyset bas d@besetd ,édyioi To snoleteg 
eure pee bas tir qo“ ty ents at eLlsiovges mile isan to affed 6 
oy eects at aot pauot, edt ,ehads gatevib juoa wd? to aseoqm”, oF heyuebe ad 
Ramee aa te ghigivs ui be,nede dowm e2 gxst fed? ieijnerost & To .tcd9 yl 
gots wefuotio mi stiisadwres qltaauport.abas vd2 ,orerteo of% yet 


“coobsassid teidiad ath ak wtswt paves edd vate OF barpteus om o2702 
” Aaagd ott cod? weet ybdvxedganoo wqivih seomka yigtitroos. a2 sapdw edd 
qissaixos pee noe nremmnns + ett =. eS 


.< 


19¢ ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. 

Otherwise, Ly the construction ef rows of seats and of xallerices, as well 
as Ly niches and other extensions, the ground fore of the roon is oS much 
changed as its acoustic effect. In halls of Group I, Fig. 346, fcrmed after 
the model of the antique theatre, so that all sound may pass radially and di- 
rectly to the ear, the seats are generally stepred, Leing partly in rows atove 
each other. he height may ke toleratly great if the ground surface ik of 
moderate extent.- 

£57,: Designs of halls, 

besides exauples already mentioned, and the lecture hall of hidiand & birkn- 
ingham Institute and Hall of Deputies in Palace of Legig’lative assembly in 
Vienna, the followin, are characteristic typical ferms; the Scala in silan, 
one of the erandest theatre interiors, famous for its accoustic croperties, 
hall of the Trocadero Palace in Paris, «hich holds atout five thousand rersons, 
and albert Hall in London, intended for eight thousand, or ten thousand with 
the highest gallery. Even if defective in acoustic relations, when compared 
to hells of otlong ground plan, they prove it possible to Luild hells of this 
type on the principle of direct radiation of rays, which can contain twice 
as many persons as @ rectangular room, where one is partially comcelled to 
rely upon indirect transmission of sound, 

The Altert Hall (fig. 24F) has the proportions of about 2: 4: & and is 
entirely lighted trom the ceiling. The concave glass area of akout 1368 ft. 

Ly 174 ft, and the considerable height of atout 181° ft.: would produce very 
disturbing effects of sound, were it not that the velariun (awning) is made 

in convex form and of solid materials (Fig.348), To this arrangexent and 3ls0 
to wooden wainscoting of enclosing walls of orchestrs and #e@llerivs is chicf- 
cy to te ascrited the satisfactory effect of tone fcund in the building, teth 
when noderately,or completely filled... These pro erties are not possessed e+ 
yually by the festal hall of the frocadero, although consideratly smaller, 
unless Garnier's excression has tecone true since it was opened (1E7E), " that 
halls eventually tecome like wine in tottles". The large hall of the new Cloth 
ral] in Leipzig (Fig. 34£) only at its ends exterds beyond arth's iimit of 
distinct hearing. by its form it belongs to the examples in Fig. 24: the cro- 
rortions of heisht, treadth and length are 2: 4: &, 

In halls of unusual size, especially in those of Groug III, and thich sust 
be adacted to purposes of the most diverse kinds, the -round form is general- 
ly that of a rectangle. Their form is much chanzed ty cutting off or round- 
iny the corners, the ends frequently ter@inating in circujar arcs, etc. These 
fornzs are designed to oarry the sound further in its initisi direction, and 
the width is accordingly alrost always considerstly less than the length. This 
is seldom less than 1 1/2 times the width; the ratio of aoproxiniately 2 to 1 


ae 7 ee eras  MOLPreowoo,c.aUIMAR ED Re 
ye “ye: % ab ft oe £ to indd agre-ban ,atwoes ostppeamigaie =: 
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pen Nike .bebseuxe ed uleotoe mes 
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bets yee ‘add gheLiopey essaoqury Tedso 192 oce aeildaseas: iadaai 46% cele Jue ,evev 
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pas ee ; tebee bre anode rpaqa sot aehselisi hos sewotsaieg ofni bebsvib. yi tefie digtet 
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2 Sgeaaeg tevoi odd yino ai ssedt bas evods hojting svsivence ef. que! 
oar wath gids. Io @ilad xeliess {S58 .4i4) sonetd af eawmod to iied 
iqgaeke 06 donc .bne.eno Je emo yiao 1 .aeiteiley 100 eejsaesg tedtien 
; me ae bite: at igdou ieagned 20 sebtey saiais wat ei ,taedus jaws Youn’ 
09 eno 2 ats allied as angiged Meare) yaasa of OF 3 duods gttod graissoqorg 
4 tigi agye etoqgwa aigibewsatai gucktiv sexs sooit sasla jeednety ett ener 
ii ate eisety doen @i winiek 36 Link wid to sege seel) sie 
| saad’ is on iged to Lied lewddeo? bat sieonce edd vd owoda ei 203 40.2 lwoag he 
peeerizoes: oad thw. bipocs dounge “Yinksrieo Sosdw jad (tag ra "2 .eyi9) bred 
“aso es Llisw es _ Lames, st tol base ingassmei%s esi jess Js jeotteucte Yo 
Leolons bessig edd Yo etudes oft emvase of 2H Jiming , sieia pawoe edi te aakd 
js beonla ef (hewn ti) ,edoin booce ets ,senss Wet eal. ote hems Yue yak 
q857% ont. t6 ogre 118 ayawls sgletedie ei th wi ehie taynhol edi to ssineo. edt 
aleviiee: «9ilisesas tot bebaedak Li quoi 1% iis. te. gui gtowt ef3.0k chao 
re oads duce 838 ys hae ,betoéatee: eaai Wiism inc at. S09. ,.9¢08 edoididiaus 
bas gussevl, te ylineqg ef eoicds ads 10900 peebai a find, je aexot. _iepiqes tis 
sotto, et! to asaomerinpet odd yi bas ,esoisibnos {soak qe neniatetsh vitwe 
“syst offeb eagle jo Lind eds ,gasblivd bets grole eigsie 6 to eiquaxe as ai © 
ajenixozaqe dake. gtlectl gt.gifsd seegwl 2i3 to ego anne use evbed aé emo 
hor) Nae apes enipepealianbeed $ 22.25 20 saotssoqosg 
- efag gagi vat a ik 5 ab guvde to ene aviv sana sided yrer. 


Paeeny eye re ay) Na Neh a 


1¢4 ARCHITECTURAL COMFCSITICN, 

nore frequently occurs, and even that of 2 to 1 is sometimes reached (Fig.- 
247).: But the height cannot Le very great. The lower the hall, the less will 
be the danger of disturting effects of sound. The ratio of "height equal to 
width(measured Letween enclosing surfaces)" appears to te the limit, which 
can be reached only in halls of moderate or smali atsolute dimensions, and 
can scarcely be exceeded. 

Since these halls not only serve for oratorical, musical, and theatrical 
uses, but also for festal assemblies and for other rurposes requiring the free 
use of the room, the floor of the hall is made horizontal, Yet ,iatforms are 
usually arranged along the walls, as well as projecting talconies, rows of 
seats, or galleries, and the latter are either Luilt free, as in the large 
hall of the Building of the husik Verein in Vienna (Pig. 342), cr they extend 
to the ceiling of the hall. The latter arrangement freyuently occurs with 
a division into three aisles, and sometimes with one in five aisles (Fesii- 
val Hall in Carlsruhe; Central Hall of alexandra Palace in London, Fig, 3247) 
This is substantially the basilican form of hall, where side aisics are in 
height chiefly divided into platforms and galleries for spectators and audi- 
tors. The lower parts of the aisles sometimes serve for communication and 
lie outside the main hall, as in the City Hall in Mayence (Fig. 260); the gal- 
lery is sometimes omitted above and there is only the lower passaie, as in the 
hall of Bourse in Vienna (Fig. 262). Smaller halls of this kind zostly have 
neither passages nor galleries, or only one at one end. cuch an example of 
important extent, is the winter garden of Central Hotel in berlin (Fig. 347); 
proportions Leing about 2:14:13, among German designs of halls, this one co- 
vers the greatest clear floor area without intermediate supports, even though 
the Clear span of City Hali at Maintz is much greater. 

“#& peculiar form is shown by the concert end festival hall of Casino at Cs- 
tend (Figs.: 251, 247) but which certainly cannot accord with the recuiresents 
of acoustics; at least its arranzement and form in weneral, as weil es loca 
tion of the sound niche, permit us tc assume the nature of the glazed enclos- 
ing surfaces, etce.. In a few cases, the sound niche, (if used} is claced at 
the center of the longer side, tut it is otherwise always erranged at the rear 
end. In the designs of falls in Grouc II intended for assemblies, festivals, 
exhibitions, etc., one is naturally less restricted, and Fig. 242 shows that 
ali typical forms of halls indeed ceccur; the cheice is partly at cleasure and 
partly determined ty local conditions, and ky the requirements of the pretien. 

4S an example of a sinple elcngated building, the hail of Palazze della Raz- 
lone in Padua may serve, one of the largest halls in Italy, with epcroxiaste 
proportions of 1: 1: 3. The new Vienna course is a tasilican slructure of 
very noble dimensions with orcecrtions of about 4.f : & : it.- Fhe Glass Pal. 


7 ? | | ner. 
oe et 283K aed tasq ede wt eala ‘seagte!. add. 16 ited’ s a heew ,doindd af sos 
} . «eviis let end ai e1segas wo? RSE | alt - WyOR-B2079 ak bdunarts tra boleis-evtl 
, ilet {stast sat  deond10 ins 17: sis; 20H. 9s testi lero te ‘Eid lisse y1eT © 

5 qel ing glyite s Asi gis ‘sa lngan ene ald, and e846 aiived ‘ak Lkeit ytd to” 
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) * ASAE .yi'), wajived al muengt 5f0. to sbavtor, iw tidused | dyads. {Seat ets to 
. ; ad gb @uioo0 aafoin tupstgifie: “dgiw ee na (Qdanahot é 10 sigaene’ elde'son 
P (388 oud #5) Bis ae yratits £ tanoige to" ae jaibeor 
; SO epetanemia 83S" 
‘ose sBdS23 auotiev io Zi ted ee to ene tenessh pee THe od “a8 _ agh™ 


tra ayen eid ototeteds. Sas 33 quer 1 eats. ag ata tee -watnee diigo 10 Sivergs 
hoeese = ‘ 


| . ye res a2 yltaonyatl ai si ud wo84 30% “dat AE srattat tet? Rass er' te “ebut 
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a oe a ‘01 io saoulse iT (yalited 20 Bic +048 

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di) waves wrest aa i quate xe geapieae pou, ots baa . 352 oF 0827 {56.344 of aatO2 
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i Wee DRE ot eS “alta oe songagier. djiw ,awwot o8¢ de 
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# tO) ak. eit peut sibbic ‘io Lied ‘eft tna gtd hoo. Iedege Lg, ain © elgaexe apt: at 
: ~s31008h aidiely s dice 61s anodivis sila alg, ag asa, qeliate a o mE (4° 36 gt): “nob 
+ yasetic “aie ass boitea wiebos eat te ells i to e420 a, 200% To drossaa tl’ ‘bs 
; { “16109 eett o divin (sae gpa)” siiisa Gi mseus Bid Yo shauton aeaeb benorated 
hi  adued ai inwdt isaciseij to B07 sgitbawt ods bie Jf bawots sleis bie . stan 
' nttaurtenoo aork éidiaiy odd isoiays ae boasts’ od you doisiv , (388 me 
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Set Pee? ped eet Tats et ee 


192 ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION. . 
ace in WUnich, used as a hall of the largest size for the past ten years, is 
five-aisled and arranged in cross-forn.: The same form appears in the relative- 
cy very stall hall of hotel Frankfurter Hof at Frankfort-o-k. The festel hall 
“of City Hall in Berlin again has the rectangular form with a single gallery 
along the longer side, and proportions of aiout 1: 1: <.. &é Circular build- 
ing of vast dimensions, the largest clear internal area now existing, is found 
in the rotunda of Vienna Exposition of i872: it properly received a relative- 
ly low height with a ceiling of conical form. Another circular design of very 
imposing diameter is the reading hall of the british ¥useum in London, not 
intended for acoustic effects and covered Ly a great dome. The same is true 
of the small though beautiful rotunda of Old Museum in berlin (Piz, S62ieee 
notatle example of a tetrastylar design with elliptical niches occurs in the 
reading hall of National Litrary in Paris (Piz. 252). 

c6%,° Disensions.: 

Figs. 246 to 247 give dimensions of several halis of various Kinds, No a- 
coustic or optic center exists in those of Group II, and therefore the magni- 
tude of the room is not limited in that rescect; Lut it is freyuently so in 

reference to construction, lighting and other roints, Dimensions are ¢ener- 
ally fixed in accordance with the number of persons expected in the room and 
area required ty each person, whether greater or smaller, according to the 
mode of use.” Data on this point will te given later, when this point can ie 
nore fully discussed with the different kinds of Luildings. 
£59." Form of Ceiling; Treatment of Forms. 

everything necessary has elready teen said in regard to form of the ceiling 
in reference to acoustics, and in reference to construction and treatment of 
forms in art.S@, 180 to 12h, and 171 to 18@, Sesides examples there given, 
forms of ercss sections of some halls are reoresented in Pigs. 34£ to 261, 
with internal views in Figs. 25£ to 3&7. The latter illustrate the treatmeni 
of the forms, with reference to arts. 127 to 179. 

The great hall of Vecchio Palace in Florence (Fig. 264) is a remarkable 
Italian exarple with horizental céiling, and the holl of kiddle Teaple in Lon- 
don (Fig. 356) is o sigilar one of the Slizatethean era with a visible decorati- 
ed framework of root. as forss of halls of the modern eeriod are the already 
mentioned domed rotunda of Cla kuseum in Berlin (Fig. 252), with o tree color- 
nade and aisle around it, and the reading rocm of National Litrary in Faris 
(Fig. S&é@), which may be assumed as typical: the visitle iron construction 
cf the ceiling supoorts nine domical vauits, covered ty colored tioes, The 
section of the hal] of bourse in Vienna (Fig. 252) stows an intersecting grein- 
ed ceiling with a larze horizontal giddie panel; the hell of builaing of Kusiz 
Verein in Vienna (Fig. 349) has a horizontal ceiling, City kall in Nayence 


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192 ARCHITECTURAL CORPOSITION. 
(Fig.: 360) has a ceiling of segmental arched form with visible ircn construct- 
ion, and Albert Hall in London (Fig.: 348) has a dored ceiling. The cross sec- 
tion of Concert kall in Cstend (Fig.: 3F1) recalls byzantine centralized Luild- 
ings. 4 remarkatle example of a large hall with galleries and entirely con- 
structed of iron is piven in the main hall of Museum of Natural History in 
Paris (Fig.: 267).° 

280. Location. 

a few words remain in regard to location to Le assigned to the hall in the 
Luilding in which it Lelongs; for one commences with this in designing it ac- 
cording to the crincinles already developed. The cuestion whether the hall 
shall te located in a ground or upper story will usually te settled Ly the 
requirenents of the programme.’ This decision indeed fixes the entire arch- 
‘Etectural organism of the wora. 

Not less important is fixing its location on the rlan.. The hall is such 
an imvortant active for external appearance of the building, that in al] cases 
a prominent position must Le assigned to it in the clan. Particularly in mon-— 
umental Luildings it will almost always te test to place it on the main sxis, 
and frequently on the transverse axis of the tuilding also, as in centralized 
tuildings. Yet reguirements of suitability and accessibility must not be ne- 
glecied.: (For relation of main entrance and main stairway tc thst of hali, 
see arts. 122 to 215). 

7@ will close this investigation Ly repeating the last words of art. 179:- 
"The highest effect in decoration and the most harmonious lighting should be © 
produced in the chief apertments of the building. In it should ie expressed 
in monumental designs the intellectual significance cf the Luildinz, in which 
the form of roon, decoration, sculsture, and painting ssy “work to,cther in 
a harmonious way." 


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